Hindŵaeth: Gwahaniaeth rhwng fersiynau

Oddi ar Wicipedia
Cynnwys wedi'i ddileu Cynnwys wedi'i ychwanegu
Dim crynodeb golygu
Tagiau: Golygiad cod 2017
Misoedd cyfeiriadaeth, replaced: January → Ionawr (6), February → Chwefror (6), March → Mawrth , may → Mai (6), June → Mehefin (3), July → Gorffennaf (13), August → Awst (3), Septem using AWB
Llinell 14: Llinell 14:
[[File:Holi Festival of Colors Utah, United States 2013.jpg|bawd|310px|chwith|Dathlu 'Holi' yn Nheml Sri Radha Krishna Utah, [[Utah]], UDA (2013)]]
[[File:Holi Festival of Colors Utah, United States 2013.jpg|bawd|310px|chwith|Dathlu 'Holi' yn Nheml Sri Radha Krishna Utah, [[Utah]], UDA (2013)]]


Mae'r gair ''Hindŵ'' yn tarddu o'r gair [[Sansgrit]] ''Sindhu''{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 1"}} sef yr [[Afon Indus]].{{Efn|{{sfn|Siemens|Roodt|2009|p=546}}{{sfn|Leaf|2014|p=36}}{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}}}} Tra bod Hindŵaeth wedi cael ei alw'n grefydd hyna'r byd,[note 4] mae llawer o ymarferwyr yn cyfeirio at eu crefydd fel Sanātana Dharma ({{lang-sa|सनातन धर्म|lit='the Eternal Dharma'}}; y Dharma Tragwyddol), sy'n cyfeirio at y syniad bod ei darddiad y tu hwnt i hanes dyn, fel sy'n cael ei ddatgan yn y testunau Hindŵaidd.{{Efn|{{sfn|Knott|1998|pp=3, 5}}{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|pp=4–5, 69–71, 150–152}}{{sfn|Bowker|2000}}{{sfn|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"}}}} Hunan-ddynodiad arall, er yn llai ffit,<ref name="SmithBK1998">{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Brian K.|title=Questioning Authority: Constructions and Deconstructions of Hinduism|journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=2|issue=3|pages=313–339|year=1998|doi=10.1007/s11407-998-0001-9|jstor=20106612}}</ref> yw ''[[Hindŵaeth|Vaidika dharma]]'', y 'dharma sy'n gysylltiedig â'r [[Veda]].'<ref>{{Cite web|title=View Dictionary|url=https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg|access-date=2021-11-19|website=sanskritdictionary.com}}</ref>
Mae'r gair ''Hindŵ'' yn tarddu o'r gair [[Sansgrit]] ''Sindhu''{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 1"}} sef yr [[Afon Indus]].{{Efn|{{sfn|Siemens|Roodt|2009|p=546}}{{sfn|Leaf|2014|p=36}}{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}}}} Tra bod Hindŵaeth wedi cael ei alw'n grefydd hyna'r byd,[note 4] mae llawer o ymarferwyr yn cyfeirio at eu crefydd fel Sanātana Dharma ({{lang-sa|सनातन धर्म|lit='the Eternal Dharma'}}; y Dharma Tragwyddol), sy'n cyfeirio at y syniad bod ei darddiad y tu hwnt i hanes dyn, fel sy'n cael ei ddatgan yn y testunau Hindŵaidd.{{Efn|{{sfn|Knott|1998|pp=3, 5}}{{sfn|Hatcher|2015|pp=4–5, 69–71, 150–152}}{{sfn|Bowker|2000}}{{sfn|Harvey|2001|p=xiii}}{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"}}}} Hunan-ddynodiad arall, er yn llai ffit,<ref name="SmithBK1998">{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Brian K.|title=Questioning Authority: Constructions and Deconstructions of Hinduism|journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=2|issue=3|pages=313–339|year=1998|doi=10.1007/s11407-998-0001-9|jstor=20106612}}</ref> yw ''Vaidika dharma'', y 'dharma sy'n gysylltiedig â'r [[Veda]].'<ref>{{Cite web|title=View Dictionary|url=https://sanskritdictionary.com/scans/?col=1&img=mw1022.jpg|access-date=2021-11-19|website=sanskritdictionary.com}}</ref>


Mae Hindŵaeth yn system o feddwl amrywiol iawn, gydag athroniaethau a chysyniadau sy'n gyffredin i lawer o wledydd, [[Defod|defodau]], systemau cosmolegol, safleoedd pererindod, ffynonellau testunol, [[metaffiseg]], mytholeg, yajna Vedig, [[ioga]], defodau agamic, ac adeiladu temlau, ymhlith pynciau eraill.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004}} Ymhlith y themâu amlwg yng nghredoau Hindŵaidd mae pedwar Puruṣārthas, nodau neu nodau priodol bywyd dynol; sef, dharma (moeseg / dyletswyddau), artha (ffyniant / gwaith), kama (dymuniadau / nwydau) a moksha (rhyddhad / rhyddid rhag y nwydau a chylch marwolaeth ac aileni),<ref name="Bilimoria 2007 p. 103">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bilimoria|2007}}; see also {{Harvard citation no brackets|Koller|1968}}.</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1997}} yn ogystal â [[karma]] (gweithredu, bwriad a chanlyniadau) a [[Samsara|saṃsāra]] (cylch marwolaeth ac aileni).{{Sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pages=46–52, 76–77}}{{Sfn|Brodd|2003}} Mae Hindŵaeth yn pwysleisio dyletswyddau tragwyddol, fel gonestrwydd, ymatal rhag anafu bodau byw (''Ahiṃsā''), amynedd, goddefgarwch, hunan-ataliaeth, rhinwedd a thosturi ac eraill.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dharma|first=Samanya|title=History of Dharmasastra|last2=Kane|first2=P. V.|volume=2|pages=4–5}} See also {{Harvard citation no brackets|Widgery|1930}}</ref> Mae arferion Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys defodau fel puja (addoli) a datganiadau, japa, myfyrdod ([[Dhyana mewn Hindŵaeth|dhyāna]]), defodau newid byd (''rites of passage'') sy'n deulu-ganolog, gwyliau blynyddol, ac ambell bererindod. Ynghyd ag arferion amrywiol fel [[ioga]], mae rhai [[Hindwiaid]] yn gadael eu byd cymdeithasol a'u heiddo materol ac yn cymryd rhan mewn Sannyasa (mynachaeth) gydol oes er mwyn cyflawni moksha.<ref name="ellinger70">{{Cite book|last=Ellinger|first=Herbert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ|title=Hinduism|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=1996|isbn=978-1-56338-161-4|pages=69–70}}</ref>
Mae Hindŵaeth yn system o feddwl amrywiol iawn, gydag athroniaethau a chysyniadau sy'n gyffredin i lawer o wledydd, [[defod]]au, systemau cosmolegol, safleoedd pererindod, ffynonellau testunol, [[metaffiseg]], mytholeg, yajna Vedig, [[ioga]], defodau agamic, ac adeiladu temlau, ymhlith pynciau eraill.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004}} Ymhlith y themâu amlwg yng nghredoau Hindŵaidd mae pedwar Puruṣārthas, nodau neu nodau priodol bywyd dynol; sef, dharma (moeseg / dyletswyddau), artha (ffyniant / gwaith), kama (dymuniadau / nwydau) a moksha (rhyddhad / rhyddid rhag y nwydau a chylch marwolaeth ac aileni),<ref name="Bilimoria 2007 p. 103">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bilimoria|2007}}; see also {{Harvard citation no brackets|Koller|1968}}.</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1997}} yn ogystal â [[karma]] (gweithredu, bwriad a chanlyniadau) a [[Samsara|saṃsāra]] (cylch marwolaeth ac aileni).{{Sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pages=46–52, 76–77}}{{Sfn|Brodd|2003}} Mae Hindŵaeth yn pwysleisio dyletswyddau tragwyddol, fel gonestrwydd, ymatal rhag anafu bodau byw (''Ahiṃsā''), amynedd, goddefgarwch, hunan-ataliaeth, rhinwedd a thosturi ac eraill.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dharma|first=Samanya|title=History of Dharmasastra|last2=Kane|first2=P. V.|volume=2|pages=4–5}} See also {{Harvard citation no brackets|Widgery|1930}}</ref> Mae arferion Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys defodau fel puja (addoli) a datganiadau, japa, myfyrdod ([[Dhyana mewn Hindŵaeth|dhyāna]]), defodau newid byd (''rites of passage'') sy'n deulu-ganolog, gwyliau blynyddol, ac ambell bererindod. Ynghyd ag arferion amrywiol fel [[ioga]], mae rhai [[Hindwiaid]] yn gadael eu byd cymdeithasol a'u heiddo materol ac yn cymryd rhan mewn Sannyasa (mynachaeth) gydol oes er mwyn cyflawni moksha.<ref name="ellinger70">{{Cite book|last=Ellinger|first=Herbert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pk3iAwAAQBAJ|title=Hinduism|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=1996|isbn=978-1-56338-161-4|pages=69–70}}</ref>


Mae testunau Hindŵaidd yn cael eu dosbarthu i ddau grwp: Śruti ("clywed") a Smṛti ("cofio"), ''a'u prif ysgrythurau yw'r [[Veda]]'', yr ''[[Upanishadau|Upanishads]]'', y ''Purānas'', y ''[[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]'', y ''[[Ramayana|Rāmāyana]]'', a'r ''Āgamas''.{{Sfn|Klostermaier|2007}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zaehner|first=R. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eWuezQEACAAJ|title=Hindu Scriptures|publisher=[[Penguin Random House]]|year=1992|isbn=978-0-679-41078-2|pages=1–7|author-link=Robert Charles Zaehner}}</ref> Ceir chwe ysgol athroniaeth Hindŵ a elwir yn āstika, sy'n cydnabod awdurdod y Vedas, sef Sānkhya, Ioga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā a Vedanta .<ref name="Matthew Clarke 2011 28">{{Cite book|last=Clarke|first=Matthew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIvHQc0-rwgC&pg=PA28|title=Development and Religion: Theology and Practice|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2011|isbn=978-0-85793-073-6|page=28|access-date=11 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Holberg|editor-first=Dale|title=Students' Britannica India|year=2000|volume=4|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica India|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|page=316}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Nicholson|first=Andrew|title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-231-14987-7|pages=2–5}}</ref> Mae'r gronoleg Puranig yn cyflwyno achau o filoedd o flynyddoedd, gan ddechrau gyda'r ''rishis'' Vedig, ond mae ysgolheigion yn ystyried Hindŵaeth fel ymasiad{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"}} neu synthesis{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=193}}{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"}} o orthopraxy Brahmanaidd<nowiki><sup typeof="mw:Transclusion" data-mw="{&amp;quot;parts&amp;quot;:[{&amp;quot;template&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;target&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;wt&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;refn&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;href&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;./Template:Refn&amp;quot;},&amp;quot;params&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;group&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;wt&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;note&amp;quot;},&amp;quot;name&amp;quot;:{&amp;quot;wt&amp;quot;:&amp;quot;\&amp;quot;Brahmanism\&amp;quot;&amp;quot;}},&amp;quot;i&amp;quot;:0}}]}" id="cite_ref-Brahmanism_42-0"></sup> gyda diwylliannau Indiaidd amrywiol,<ref name="various cultures">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Hiltebeitel|2007}}; {{Harvard citation no brackets|Flood|1996}}; {{Harvard citation no brackets|Lockard|2007}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"}} â gwreiddiau amrywiol {{Sfn|Narayanan|2009}}{{refn|group=note|name="roots"}} a dim sylfaenydd penodol.{{Sfn|Fowler|1997}} Daeth y synthesis Hindŵaidd hwn i'r amlwg ar ôl y cyfnod Vedic, rhwng c. 500{{Sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007}} –200{{Sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE ac c. 300 CE,{{Sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007}} yng nghyfnod yr [[Hanes India|Ail Drefoli]] a chyfnod clasurol cynnar Hindŵaeth, pan gyfansoddwyd yr Epics a'r Purānas cyntaf.{{Sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007}}{{Sfn|Larson|2009}} Ffynnodd yn y cyfnod canoloesol, gyda dirywiad Bwdhaeth yn India.{{Sfn|Larson|1995}}
Mae testunau Hindŵaidd yn cael eu dosbarthu i ddau grwp: Śruti ("clywed") a Smṛti ("cofio"), ''a'u prif ysgrythurau yw'r [[Veda]]'', yr ''[[Upanishadau|Upanishads]]'', y ''Purānas'', y ''[[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]]'', y ''[[Ramayana|Rāmāyana]]'', a'r ''Āgamas''.{{Sfn|Klostermaier|2007}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zaehner|first=R. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eWuezQEACAAJ|title=Hindu Scriptures|publisher=[[Penguin Random House]]|year=1992|isbn=978-0-679-41078-2|pages=1–7|author-link=Robert Charles Zaehner}}</ref> Ceir chwe ysgol athroniaeth Hindŵ a elwir yn āstika, sy'n cydnabod awdurdod y Vedas, sef Sānkhya, Ioga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā a Vedanta .<ref name="Matthew Clarke 2011 28">{{Cite book|last=Clarke|first=Matthew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIvHQc0-rwgC&pg=PA28|title=Development and Religion: Theology and Practice|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2011|isbn=978-0-85793-073-6|page=28|access-date=11 Chwefror 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Holberg|editor-first=Dale|title=Students' Britannica India|year=2000|volume=4|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica India|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|page=316}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Nicholson|first=Andrew|title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-231-14987-7|pages=2–5}}</ref> Mae'r gronoleg Puranig yn cyflwyno achau o filoedd o flynyddoedd, gan ddechrau gyda'r ''rishis'' Vedig, ond mae ysgolheigion yn ystyried Hindŵaeth fel ymasiad{{refn|group=note|name="Lockard-fusion"}} neu synthesis{{sfn|Samuel|2008|p=193}}{{refn|group=note|name="Hiltebeitel-synthesis"}} o orthopraxy Brahmanaidd<nowiki> gyda diwylliannau Indiaidd amrywiol,<ref name="various cultures">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Hiltebeitel|2007}}; {{Harvard citation no brackets|Flood|1996}}; {{Harvard citation no brackets|Lockard|2007}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="fusion"}} â gwreiddiau amrywiol {{Sfn|Narayanan|2009}}{{refn|group=note|name="roots"}} a dim sylfaenydd penodol.{{Sfn|Fowler|1997}} Daeth y synthesis Hindŵaidd hwn i'r amlwg ar ôl y cyfnod Vedic, rhwng c. 500{{Sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007}} –200{{Sfn|Larson|2009}} BCE ac c. 300 CE,{{Sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007}} yng nghyfnod yr [[Hanes India|Ail Drefoli]] a chyfnod clasurol cynnar Hindŵaeth, pan gyfansoddwyd yr Epics a'r Purānas cyntaf.{{Sfn|Hiltebeitel|2007}}{{Sfn|Larson|2009}} Ffynnodd yn y cyfnod canoloesol, gyda dirywiad Bwdhaeth yn India.{{Sfn|Larson|1995}}


Ar hyn o bryd, y pedwar enwad mwyaf o fewn Hindŵaeth yw Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism a Smartism.{{Sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.}}{{Sfn|Lipner|2009}} Mae ffynonellau awdurdod a gwirioneddau tragwyddol yn y testunau Hindŵaidd yn chwarae rhan bwysig, ond ceir traddodiad Hindŵaidd cryf hefyd o gwestiynu awdurdod er mwyn dyfnhau dealltwriaeth o'r gwirioneddau hyn a datblygu'r traddodiad ymhellach.<ref name="frazierintrop2">{{Cite book|last=Frazier|first=Jessica|url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies|date=2011|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/n15 1]–15}}</ref> Hindŵaeth yw'r ffydd a broffesir fwyaf eang yn India, Nepal a Mauritius. Mae nifer sylweddol o gymunedau Hindŵaidd i'w cael yn [[Hindŵaeth yn Ne-ddwyrain Asia|Ne-ddwyrain Asia]] gan gynnwys yn [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Peringatan|url=https://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/page/warning|website=sp2010.bps.go.id}}</ref> y [[Y Caribî|Caribî]], [[Gogledd America]], Ewrop, Oceania, Affrica, a rhanbarthau eraill . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Vertovec|first=Steven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ|title=The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-36705-2|pages=1–4, 7–8, 63–64, 87–88, 141–143}}</ref>
Ar hyn o bryd, y pedwar enwad mwyaf o fewn Hindŵaeth yw Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism a Smartism.{{Sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.}}{{Sfn|Lipner|2009}} Mae ffynonellau awdurdod a gwirioneddau tragwyddol yn y testunau Hindŵaidd yn chwarae rhan bwysig, ond ceir traddodiad Hindŵaidd cryf hefyd o gwestiynu awdurdod er mwyn dyfnhau dealltwriaeth o'r gwirioneddau hyn a datblygu'r traddodiad ymhellach.<ref name="frazierintrop2">{{Cite book|last=Frazier|first=Jessica|url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies|date=2011|publisher=Continuum|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/n15 1]–15}}</ref> Hindŵaeth yw'r ffydd a broffesir fwyaf eang yn India, Nepal a Mauritius. Mae nifer sylweddol o gymunedau Hindŵaidd i'w cael yn [[Hindŵaeth yn Ne-ddwyrain Asia|Ne-ddwyrain Asia]] gan gynnwys yn [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Peringatan|url=https://sp2010.bps.go.id/index.php/page/warning|website=sp2010.bps.go.id}}</ref> y [[Y Caribî|Caribî]], [[Gogledd America]], Ewrop, Oceania, Affrica, a rhanbarthau eraill .<ref>{{Cite book|last=Vertovec|first=Steven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ|title=The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-36705-2|pages=1–4, 7–8, 63–64, 87–88, 141–143}}</ref>


== Diffiniadau ==
== Diffiniadau ==
Mae Hindŵaeth yn cynnwys amrywiaeth o syniadau ar [[ysbrydolrwydd]] a thraddodiadau, ond nid oes ganddo drefn eglwysig, dim awdurdod crefyddol diamheuol, dim corff llywodraethu, dim proffwyd/i nac unrhyw lyfr sanctaidd penodol. Gall Hindwiaid ddewis bod yn [[Amldduwiaeth|amldduwiol]], [[Pantheistiaeth|pantheistig]], panentheistig, pandeistig, henotheistig, [[Undduwiaeth|monotheistig]], monistig, [[Agnosticiaeth|agnostig]], [[Anffyddiaeth|anffyddiol]] neu [[Dyneiddiaeth|ddyneiddiol]].<ref name="Lipner2009p8">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Lipner|2009}} Quote: "[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic,henotheistic, panentheistic ,pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict|publisher=Academic Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-12-369503-1|editor-last=Kurtz|editor-first=Lester}}</ref><ref>MK Gandhi, ''[http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf The Essence of Hinduism] {{Webarchive}}'', Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref> Yn ôl Doniger, "mae syniadau am holl brif faterion ffydd a ffordd o fyw - llysieuaeth, di-drais, cred mewn aileni, hyd yn oed [[Y drefn gastiau yn India|cast]] - yn destunau dadl, ac nid [[dogma]]."{{Sfn|Doniger|2014}}
Mae Hindŵaeth yn cynnwys amrywiaeth o syniadau ar [[ysbrydolrwydd]] a thraddodiadau, ond nid oes ganddo drefn eglwysig, dim awdurdod crefyddol diamheuol, dim corff llywodraethu, dim proffwyd/i nac unrhyw lyfr sanctaidd penodol. Gall Hindwiaid ddewis bod yn [[Amldduwiaeth|amldduwiol]], [[Pantheistiaeth|pantheistig]], panentheistig, pandeistig, henotheistig, [[Undduwiaeth|monotheistig]], monistig, [[Agnosticiaeth|agnostig]], [[Anffyddiaeth|anffyddiol]] neu [[Dyneiddiaeth|ddyneiddiol]].<ref name="Lipner2009p8">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Lipner|2009}} Quote: "[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One Mai be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic,henotheistic, panentheistic ,pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict|publisher=Academic Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-12-369503-1|editor-last=Kurtz|editor-first=Lester}}</ref><ref>MK Gandhi, ''[http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf The Essence of Hinduism] {{Webarchive}}'', Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man Mai not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref> Yn ôl Doniger, "mae syniadau am holl brif faterion ffydd a ffordd o fyw - llysieuaeth, di-drais, cred mewn aileni, hyd yn oed [[Y drefn gastiau yn India|cast]] - yn destunau dadl, ac nid [[dogma]]."{{Sfn|Doniger|2014}}


Oherwydd yr ystod eang o draddodiadau a syniadau a gwmpesir gan y term Hindŵaeth, mae'n anodd dod o hyd i ddiffiniad cynhwysfawr.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} Mae'r grefydd "yn gwadu ein hawydd i'w diffinio a'i chategoreiddio".{{Sfn|Knott|1998|p=117}} Diffiniwyd Hindŵaeth yn amrywiol fel crefydd, fel traddodiad crefyddol, ac fel set o gredoau crefyddol, ac fel "ffordd o fyw".{{Sfn|Sharma|2003}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} O safbwynt geirfa'r Gorllewin, cyfeirir at Hindŵaeth fel 'crefydd', ond yn India, caiff ei diffionio'n amlach fel ''dharma'', sy'n ehangach na ''chrefydd'' y Gorllewin.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=3}}; {{Harvard citation no brackets|Witzel|2003|p=68}}</ref>
Oherwydd yr ystod eang o draddodiadau a syniadau a gwmpesir gan y term Hindŵaeth, mae'n anodd dod o hyd i ddiffiniad cynhwysfawr.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} Mae'r grefydd "yn gwadu ein hawydd i'w diffinio a'i chategoreiddio".{{Sfn|Knott|1998|p=117}} Diffiniwyd Hindŵaeth yn amrywiol fel crefydd, fel traddodiad crefyddol, ac fel set o gredoau crefyddol, ac fel "ffordd o fyw".{{Sfn|Sharma|2003}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} O safbwynt geirfa'r Gorllewin, cyfeirir at Hindŵaeth fel 'crefydd', ond yn India, caiff ei diffionio'n amlach fel ''dharma'', sy'n ehangach na ''chrefydd'' y Gorllewin.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=3}}; {{Harvard citation no brackets|Witzel|2003|p=68}}</ref>
Llinell 47: Llinell 47:
=== Amrywiaeth ===
=== Amrywiaeth ===
[[Delwedd:Ganapati.1..JPG|bawd| [[Ganesha]] yw un o'r duwiau mwyaf adnabyddus a mwyaf addoledig yn y pantheon Hindŵaidd.]]
[[Delwedd:Ganapati.1..JPG|bawd| [[Ganesha]] yw un o'r duwiau mwyaf adnabyddus a mwyaf addoledig yn y pantheon Hindŵaidd.]]
Mae credoau Hindŵaidd yn helaeth ac yn amrywiol iawn, ac felly cyfeirir at Hindŵaeth yn aml fel teulu o grefyddau yn hytrach nag un grefydd.<ref group="web">{{Cite web|title=Hinduism|url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism|access-date=2020-04-23|website=HISTORY|archivedate=29 December 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174138/https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism}}</ref> O fewn pob crefydd yn y teulu hwn o grefyddau, mae yna wahanol ddiwinyddiaeth, arferion, a thestunau cysegredig.<ref group="web">{{Cite web|title=Basics of Hinduism|publisher=Kauai's Hindu Monastery|url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/fourteen-questions/|access-date=2020-04-23|archivedate=29 December 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174156/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/fourteen-questions/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Dasgupta|first=Surendranath|title=A history of Indian philosophy (part 1)|last2=Banarsidass|first2=Motilall|year=1992|page=70}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chande|first=M.B.|title=Indian Philosophy in Modern Times|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist.|year=2000|page=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Culp|first=John|date=2008-12-04|title=Panentheism|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174122/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/}}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite web|date=2004-06-15|title=Is Hinduism monotheistic?|website=The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies|url=https://ochs.org.uk/news/hinduism-monotheistic|access-date=2020-04-23|archivedate=29 December 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/https://ochs.org.uk/news/hinduism-monotheistic}}</ref> Nid oes gan Hindŵaeth "system gred unedig wedi'i hamgodio mewn datganiad o ffydd neu gredo",{{Sfn|Flood|1996}} ond yn hytrach mae'n derm ymbarél sy'n cynnwys lluosogrwydd ffenomenau crefyddol India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=W. C.|year=1962|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5fImMZMqNIC|title=The Meaning and End of Religion|location=San Francisco|publisher=Harper and Row|isbn=978-0-7914-0361-7|page=65|access-date=27 October 2015}}</ref>{{Sfn|Halbfass|1991}} Yn ôl Goruchaf Lys India,
Mae credoau Hindŵaidd yn helaeth ac yn amrywiol iawn, ac felly cyfeirir at Hindŵaeth yn aml fel teulu o grefyddau yn hytrach nag un grefydd.<ref group="web">{{Cite web|title=Hinduism|url=https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism|access-date=2020-04-23|website=HISTORY|archivedate=29 December 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174138/https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism}}</ref> O fewn pob crefydd yn y teulu hwn o grefyddau, mae yna wahanol ddiwinyddiaeth, arferion, a thestunau cysegredig.<ref group="web">{{Cite web|title=Basics of Hinduism|publisher=Kauai's Hindu Monastery|url=https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/fourteen-questions/|access-date=2020-04-23|archivedate=29 December 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174156/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/fourteen-questions/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Dasgupta|first=Surendranath|title=A history of Indian philosophy (part 1)|last2=Banarsidass|first2=Motilall|year=1992|page=70}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chande|first=M.B.|title=Indian Philosophy in Modern Times|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist.|year=2000|page=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Culp|first=John|date=2008-12-04|title=Panentheism|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174122/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/}}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite web|date=2004-06-15|title=Is Hinduism monotheistic?|website=The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies|url=https://ochs.org.uk/news/hinduism-monotheistic|access-date=2020-04-23|archivedate=29 December 2020|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/https://ochs.org.uk/news/hinduism-monotheistic}}</ref> Nid oes gan Hindŵaeth "system gred unedig wedi'i hamgodio mewn datganiad o ffydd neu gredo",{{Sfn|Flood|1996}} ond yn hytrach mae'n derm ymbarél sy'n cynnwys lluosogrwydd ffenomenau crefyddol India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=W. C.|year=1962|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5fImMZMqNIC|title=The Meaning and End of Religion|location=San Francisco|publisher=Harper and Row|isbn=978-0-7914-0361-7|page=65|access-date=27 Hydref 2015}}</ref>{{Sfn|Halbfass|1991}} Yn ôl Goruchaf Lys India,
{{Dyfyniad|Yn wahanol i grefyddau eraill yn y Byd, nid yw'r grefydd Hindŵaidd yn hawlio un Proffwyd, nid yw'n addoli unrhyw un Duw, nid yw'n credu mewn unrhyw un cysyniad athronyddol ac nid yw'n dilyn unrhyw un ddefod neu berfformiad/au crefyddol; mewn gwirionedd, nid yw'n bodloni nodweddion traddodiadol crefydd na chredo. Mae'n ffordd o fyw a dim byd mwy ".{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}}}
{{Dyfyniad|Yn wahanol i grefyddau eraill yn y Byd, nid yw'r grefydd Hindŵaidd yn hawlio un Proffwyd, nid yw'n addoli unrhyw un Duw, nid yw'n credu mewn unrhyw un cysyniad athronyddol ac nid yw'n dilyn unrhyw un ddefod neu berfformiad/au crefyddol; mewn gwirionedd, nid yw'n bodloni nodweddion traddodiadol crefydd na chredo. Mae'n ffordd o fyw a dim byd mwy ".{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|p=1}}}}


=== Undod ===
=== Undod ===
Er gwaethaf y gwahaniaethau, mae yna ymdeimlad o undod hefyd.{{Sfn|Halbfass|1991}} Mae'r rhan fwyaf o draddodiadau Hindŵaidd yn parchu corff o lenyddiaeth grefyddol neu gysegredig, y [[Veda|Vedas]],{{Sfn|Nicholson|2010}} er bod eithriadau.{{Sfn|Flood|1996}} Mae'r testunau hyn yn ein hatgoffa o'r dreftadaeth ddiwylliannol hynafol ac maent yn destun balchder i Hindwiaid,<ref name="andreapinkney" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Haines|first=Jeffrey|title=Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-0-415-60029-3|page=80}}</ref> gyda Louis Renou yn nodi "hyd yn oed yn y parthau mwyaf uniongred, mae'r parch i'r Vedas yn amlwg".<ref name="andreapinkney">{{Cite book|last=Pinkney|first=Andrea|title=Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-415-63503-5|editor-last=Turner|editor-first=Bryan|pages=31–32|editor-last2=Salemink|editor-first2=Oscar}}</ref>{{Sfn|Halbfass|1991}}
Er gwaethaf y gwahaniaethau, mae yna ymdeimlad o undod hefyd.{{Sfn|Halbfass|1991}} Mae'r rhan fwyaf o draddodiadau Hindŵaidd yn parchu corff o lenyddiaeth grefyddol neu gysegredig, y [[Veda]]s,{{Sfn|Nicholson|2010}} er bod eithriadau.{{Sfn|Flood|1996}} Mae'r testunau hyn yn ein hatgoffa o'r dreftadaeth ddiwylliannol hynafol ac maent yn destun balchder i Hindwiaid,<ref name="andreapinkney" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Haines|first=Jeffrey|title=Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|isbn=978-0-415-60029-3|page=80}}</ref> gyda Louis Renou yn nodi "hyd yn oed yn y parthau mwyaf uniongred, mae'r parch i'r Vedas yn amlwg".<ref name="andreapinkney">{{Cite book|last=Pinkney|first=Andrea|title=Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-415-63503-5|editor-last=Turner|editor-first=Bryan|pages=31–32|editor-last2=Salemink|editor-first2=Oscar}}</ref>{{Sfn|Halbfass|1991}}


== Credoau ==
== Credoau ==
[[Delwedd:Halebid3.JPG|de|bawd| Cerflun ar banel wal yn [[Teml Hoysaleswara|nheml Hoysaleswara]] yn Halebidu, yn cynrychioli'r [[Trimurti]]: [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]] a [[Vishnu]]]]
[[Delwedd:Halebid3.JPG|de|bawd| Cerflun ar banel wal yn [[Teml Hoysaleswara|nheml Hoysaleswara]] yn Halebidu, yn cynrychioli'r [[Trimurti]]: [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]] a [[Vishnu]]]]
Mae themâu amlwg yng nghredoau Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys (ond heb fod yn gyfyngedig i) Dharma (moeseg / dyletswyddau), [[Samsara|saṃsāra]] (cylch parhaus ymglymiad mewn nwydau a'r enedigaeth, bywyd, marwolaeth ac aileni sy'n deillio o hynny), [[Karma]] (gweithredu, bwriad, a chanlyniadau ), moksha (rhyddhad rhag ymlyniad a saṃsāra), a'r amrywiol [[Ioga|iogas]] (llwybrau neu arferion). {{Sfn|Brodd|2003}}
Mae themâu amlwg yng nghredoau Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys (ond heb fod yn gyfyngedig i) Dharma (moeseg / dyletswyddau), [[Samsara|saṃsāra]] (cylch parhaus ymglymiad mewn nwydau a'r enedigaeth, bywyd, marwolaeth ac aileni sy'n deillio o hynny), [[Karma]] (gweithredu, bwriad, a chanlyniadau ), moksha (rhyddhad rhag ymlyniad a saṃsāra), a'r amrywiol [[ioga]]s (llwybrau neu arferion). {{Sfn|Brodd|2003}}


=== Purusharthas ===
=== Purusharthas ===
Llinell 66: Llinell 66:


==== Dharma (cyfiawnder, moeseg) ====
==== Dharma (cyfiawnder, moeseg) ====
Ystyrir Dharma fel y nod mwyaf blaenllaw mewn Hindŵaeth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=The Fruits of Our Desiring|year=1996a|isbn=978-1-896209-30-2|editor-last=Lipner|editor-first=Julius|pages=16–21|chapter=The meaning and context of the Purusarthas|author-link=Gavin Flood}}</ref> Mae'r cysyniad o dharma yn cynnwys ymddygiadau yr ystyrir eu bod yn unol ag [[rta]], y drefn sy'n gwneud bywyd a bydysawd yn bosibl, ac mae'n cynnwys dyletswyddau, hawliau, deddfau, ymddygiad, rhinweddau a "ffordd gywir o fyw".<ref name="tce">{{Cite book|title=The Columbia Encyclopedia|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-7876-5015-5|edition=6th|chapter=Dharma}}</ref> Mae dharma Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys dyletswyddau crefyddol, hawliau moesol a dyletswyddau pob unigolyn, ynghyd ag ymddygiadau sy'n galluogi trefn gymdeithasol, ymddygiad cywir, a rhai rhinweddol.<ref name="tce" /> Dharma, yn ôl Van Buitenen,<ref name="vanbuitenen">{{Cite journal|last=Van Buitenen|first=J. A. B.|date=April–July 1957|title=Dharma and Moksa|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=7|issue=1/2|pages=33–40|doi=10.2307/1396832|jstor=1396832}}</ref> yw'r hyn y mae'n rhaid i bob bod dynol presennol ei dderbyn a'i barchu i gynnal cytgord a threfn yn y byd.<ref name="vanbuitenen" />
Ystyrir Dharma fel y nod mwyaf blaenllaw mewn Hindŵaeth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=The Fruits of Our Desiring|year=1996a|isbn=978-1-896209-30-2|editor-last=Lipner|editor-first=Julius|pages=16–21|chapter=The meaning and context of the Purusarthas|author-link=Gavin Flood}}</ref> Mae'r cysyniad o dharma yn cynnwys ymddygiadau yr ystyrir eu bod yn unol ag [[rta]], y drefn sy'n gwneud bywyd a bydysawd yn bosibl, ac mae'n cynnwys dyletswyddau, hawliau, deddfau, ymddygiad, rhinweddau a "ffordd gywir o fyw".<ref name="tce">{{Cite book|title=The Columbia Encyclopedia|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-7876-5015-5|edition=6th|chapter=Dharma}}</ref> Mae dharma Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys dyletswyddau crefyddol, hawliau moesol a dyletswyddau pob unigolyn, ynghyd ag ymddygiadau sy'n galluogi trefn gymdeithasol, ymddygiad cywir, a rhai rhinweddol.<ref name="tce" /> Dharma, yn ôl Van Buitenen,<ref name="vanbuitenen">{{Cite journal|last=Van Buitenen|first=J. A. B.|date=April–July 1957|title=Dharma and Moksa|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=7|issue=1/2|pages=33–40|doi=10.2307/1396832|jstor=1396832}}</ref> yw'r hyn y mae'n rhaid i bob bod dynol presennol ei dderbyn a'i barchu i gynnal cytgord a threfn yn y byd.<ref name="vanbuitenen" />


==== Artha (bywoliaeth, cyfoeth) ====
==== Artha (bywoliaeth, cyfoeth) ====
Llinell 82: Llinell 82:


=== Y cysyniad o Dduw ===
=== Y cysyniad o Dduw ===
Mae Hindŵaeth yn system amrywiol o feddwl gydag amrywiaeth eang o gredoau;<ref name="Lipner2009p8">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Lipner|2009}} Quote: "[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic,henotheistic, panentheistic ,pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chakravarti|first=Sitansu|title=Hinduism, a way of life|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1991|isbn=978-81-208-0899-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71|page=71|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=13 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413105302/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Smart|first=Ninian|year=2007|title=Polytheism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism|access-date=5 July 2007|archive-date=10 August 2011|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60pyc0FDi?url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469156/polytheism|url-status=live}}</ref> mae ei gysyniad o Dduw yn gymhleth ac yn dibynnu ar bob unigolyn a'r traddodiad a'r athroniaeth a ddilynir. Cyfeirir ato weithiau fel henotheistig (h.y., yn ymwneud ag ymroddiad i dduw sengl wrth dderbyn bodolaeth eraill), ond mae unrhyw derm o'r fath yn llawer rhy syml.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gill|first=N.S|title=Henotheism|url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317151629/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm|archivedate=17 March 2007|access-date=5 July 2007|publisher=[[About.com|About, Inc]]}}</ref>
Mae Hindŵaeth yn system amrywiol o feddwl gydag amrywiaeth eang o gredoau;<ref name="Lipner2009p8">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Lipner|2009}} Quote: "[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One Mai be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic,henotheistic, panentheistic ,pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chakravarti|first=Sitansu|title=Hinduism, a way of life|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1991|isbn=978-81-208-0899-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71|page=71|access-date=29 December 2020|archive-date=13 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413105302/https://books.google.com/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group="web">{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Smart|first=Ninian|year=2007|title=Polytheism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism|access-date=5 Gorffennaf 2007|archive-date=10 Awst 2011|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60pyc0FDi?url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469156/polytheism|url-status=live}}</ref> mae ei gysyniad o Dduw yn gymhleth ac yn dibynnu ar bob unigolyn a'r traddodiad a'r athroniaeth a ddilynir. Cyfeirir ato weithiau fel henotheistig (h.y., yn ymwneud ag ymroddiad i dduw sengl wrth dderbyn bodolaeth eraill), ond mae unrhyw derm o'r fath yn llawer rhy syml.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gill|first=N.S|title=Henotheism|url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070317151629/http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm|archivedate=17 Mawrth 2007|access-date=5 Gorffennaf 2007|publisher=[[About.com|About, Inc]]}}</ref>

Mae'r ''[[Nasadiya Sukta]]'' (''Emyn y Creu'') o'r ''[[Rig Veda]]'' yn un o'r testunau cynharaf {{Sfn|Flood|1996}} sy'n "dangos ymdeimlad o ddyfalu metaffisegol" am yr hyn a greodd y bydysawd, y cysyniad o dduw (iau) Yr Un, ac a yw hyd yn oed Yr Un yn gwybod sut y daeth y bydysawd i fodolaeth.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Flood|1996}}; {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramer|1986}}</ref> Mae'r ''Rig Veda yn'' canmol nifer o dduwdodau (neu fân dduwiau), dim un ohonyn nhw'n uwchraddol nac yn israddol, mewn modd henotheistig.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Muller|first=Max|author-link=Max Muller|year=1878|title=Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India|publisher=Longmans Green & Co|pages=260–271}}<br /><br />{{Cite book|last=Wilkins|first=William Joseph|year=1882|title=Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic|publisher=London Missionary Society|location=Calcutta|page=8|url={{Google books|ZBUHAAAAQAAJ|page=8|plain-url=yes}}}}</ref> Mae'r emynau yn cyfeirio dro ar ôl tro at Un Gwirionedd ac un Realaeth Eithaf. Dehonglwyd "Un Gwirionedd" o fewn llenyddiaeth Vedig, yn ysgolheictod yr oes fodern, fel undduwiaeth, monistiaeth, yn ogystal ag Egwyddorion Cudd y tu ôl i ddigwyddiadau a phrosesau mawr natur.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raghavendrachar|first=H.N.|year=1944|title=Monism in the Vedas|journal=The Half-yearly Journal of the Mysore University|volume=4|issue=2|pages=137–152|url=http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206070146/http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf|archive-date=6 February 2015}}<br /><br />{{Cite journal|last=Werner|first=K.|year=1982|title=Men, gods and powers in the Vedic outlook|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland|volume=114|issue=1|pages=14–24|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00158575}}<br /><br />{{Cite journal|last=Coward|first=H.|year=1995|title=The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas|journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies|volume=8|issue=1|pages=45–47|doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1116|quote=There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition}}</ref>


Mae'r ''[[Nasadiya Sukta]]'' (''Emyn y Creu'') o'r ''[[Rig Veda]]'' yn un o'r testunau cynharaf {{Sfn|Flood|1996}} sy'n "dangos ymdeimlad o ddyfalu metaffisegol" am yr hyn a greodd y bydysawd, y cysyniad o dduw (iau) Yr Un, ac a yw hyd yn oed Yr Un yn gwybod sut y daeth y bydysawd i fodolaeth.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Flood|1996}}; {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramer|1986}}</ref> Mae'r ''Rig Veda yn'' canmol nifer o dduwdodau (neu fân dduwiau), dim un ohonyn nhw'n uwchraddol nac yn israddol, mewn modd henotheistig.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Muller|first=Max|author-link=Max Muller|year=1878|title=Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India|publisher=Longmans Green & Co|pages=260–271}}<br /><br />{{Cite book|last=Wilkins|first=William Joseph|year=1882|title=Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic|publisher=London Missionary Society|location=Calcutta|page=8|url={{Google books|ZBUHAAAAQAAJ|page=8|plain-url=yes}}}}</ref> Mae'r emynau yn cyfeirio dro ar ôl tro at Un Gwirionedd ac un Realaeth Eithaf. Dehonglwyd "Un Gwirionedd" o fewn llenyddiaeth Vedig, yn ysgolheictod yr oes fodern, fel undduwiaeth, monistiaeth, yn ogystal ag Egwyddorion Cudd y tu ôl i ddigwyddiadau a phrosesau mawr natur.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raghavendrachar|first=H.N.|year=1944|title=Monism in the Vedas|journal=The Half-yearly Journal of the Mysore University|volume=4|issue=2|pages=137–152|url=http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206070146/http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf|archive-date=6 Chwefror 2015}}<br /><br />{{Cite journal|last=Werner|first=K.|year=1982|title=Men, gods and powers in the Vedic outlook|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland|volume=114|issue=1|pages=14–24|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00158575}}<br /><br />{{Cite journal|last=Coward|first=H.|year=1995|title=The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas|journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies|volume=8|issue=1|pages=45–47|doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1116|quote=There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition}}</ref>


xxx
xxx
[[Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images]]
Mae Hindwiaid yn credu bod gan bob creadur byw 'Yr Hunan' (tebyg i 'Enaid'). Gelwir y gwir "Hunan" hwn o bob person yn '''ātman''' . Credir bod yr Hunan yn dragwyddol.{{Sfn|Monier-Williams|1974}} Yn ôl diwinyddiaeth monistig / pantheistig (di-ddeuol) Hindŵaidd, mae'r Atman hwn yn wahanol i Brahman, yr ysbryd goruchaf neu'r ''Realiti Ultimate''.<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> Nod bywyd, yn ôl ysgol Advaita, yw sylweddoli bod Hunan rhywun yn union yr un fath â Hunan y goruchaf, bod yr Hunan goruchaf yn bresennol ym mhopeth a phawb, mae'r holl fywyd yn rhyng-gysylltiedig ac mae undod ym mhob bywyd.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|1987}}<ref>John Koller (2012), ''Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'' (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-78294-4}}, pp. 99–107</ref><ref>Lance Nelson (1996), "Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita", in ''Living Liberation in Hindu Thought'' (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}}, pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref> Mae ysgolion deuistig (Dvaita a Bhakti) yn dehongli Brahman fel y Bod Goruchaf sydd ar wahân i'r Hunan unigol.<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-595-7}}, pages 345–347</ref> Maent yn addoli'r Bod Goruchaf fel [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], neu Shakti, yn dibynnu ar y sect. Gelwir Duw yn ''Ishvara'', ''Bhagavan'', ''Parameshwara'', ''[[Deva (Hindŵaeth)|Deva]]'' neu ''Devi'', ac mae gan y termau hyn wahanol ystyron mewn gwahanol ysgolion Hindŵaeth.{{Sfn|Eliade|2009}}{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967}}{{Sfn|Monier-Williams|2001}}
Mae Hindwiaid yn credu bod gan bob creadur byw 'Yr Hunan' (tebyg i 'Enaid'). Gelwir y gwir "Hunan" hwn o bob person yn '''ātman''' . Credir bod yr Hunan yn dragwyddol.{{Sfn|Monier-Williams|1974}} Yn ôl diwinyddiaeth monistig / pantheistig (di-ddeuol) Hindŵaidd, mae'r Atman hwn yn wahanol i Brahman, yr ysbryd goruchaf neu'r ''Realiti Ultimate''.<ref name="bhaskaranandaessential">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Bhaskarananda|1994}}</ref> Nod bywyd, yn ôl ysgol Advaita, yw sylweddoli bod Hunan rhywun yn union yr un fath â Hunan y goruchaf, bod yr Hunan goruchaf yn bresennol ym mhopeth a phawb, mae'r holl fywyd yn rhyng-gysylltiedig ac mae undod ym mhob bywyd.{{Sfn|Vivekananda|1987}}<ref>John Koller (2012), ''Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'' (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-78294-4}}, pp. 99–107</ref><ref>Lance Nelson (1996), "Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita", in ''Living Liberation in Hindu Thought'' (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2706-4}}, pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)</ref> Mae ysgolion deuistig (Dvaita a Bhakti) yn dehongli Brahman fel y Bod Goruchaf sydd ar wahân i'r Hunan unigol.<ref name="R Prasad 2009 pages 345-347">R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-81-8069-595-7}}, pages 345–347</ref> Maent yn addoli'r Bod Goruchaf fel [[Vishnu]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], neu Shakti, yn dibynnu ar y sect. Gelwir Duw yn ''Ishvara'', ''Bhagavan'', ''Parameshwara'', ''[[Deva (Hindŵaeth)|Deva]]'' neu ''Devi'', ac mae gan y termau hyn wahanol ystyron mewn gwahanol ysgolion Hindŵaeth.{{Sfn|Eliade|2009}}{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967}}{{Sfn|Monier-Williams|2001}}


Llinell 101: Llinell 99:
=== Defodau ===
=== Defodau ===
[[Delwedd:(A)_Hindu_wedding,_Saptapadi_ritual_before_Agni_Yajna.jpg|de|bawd|Priodas yw'r ddefod bersonol fwyaf helaeth y mae oedolyn Hindŵaidd yn ymgymryd â hi yn ei fywyd. Mae priodas Hindŵaidd nodweddiadol yn cael ei gweinyddu cyn defod tân Vedig (gw. y llun).{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a}}]]
[[Delwedd:(A)_Hindu_wedding,_Saptapadi_ritual_before_Agni_Yajna.jpg|de|bawd|Priodas yw'r ddefod bersonol fwyaf helaeth y mae oedolyn Hindŵaidd yn ymgymryd â hi yn ei fywyd. Mae priodas Hindŵaidd nodweddiadol yn cael ei gweinyddu cyn defod tân Vedig (gw. y llun).{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a}}]]
Mae'r rhan fwyaf o Hindwiaid yn cynnal defodau crefyddol gartref.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Muesse|2011}}. "rituals daily prescribe routine"</ref> Mae'r defodau'n amrywio'n fawr ymhlith ardaloedd, pentrefi ac unigolion. Nid ydyn nhw'n orfodol mewn Hindŵaeth. Dewis unigolyn yw natur a lle defodau. Mae rhai Hindwiaid defosiynol yn perfformio defodau dyddiol fel addoli ar doriad y wawr ar ôl cael bath (fel arfer mewn cysegr teulu, ac yn nodweddiadol mae'n cynnwys goleuo lamp ac yn cynnig bwydydd o flaen delweddau o'r duwiau), llefaru o sgriptiau crefyddol, canu bhajans (emynau defosiynol), [[ioga]], [[myfyrdod]], llafarganu [[Mantra|mantras]] ac eraill.{{Sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|pp=145–146}}
Mae'r rhan fwyaf o Hindwiaid yn cynnal defodau crefyddol gartref.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Muesse|2011}}. "rituals daily prescribe routine"</ref> Mae'r defodau'n amrywio'n fawr ymhlith ardaloedd, pentrefi ac unigolion. Nid ydyn nhw'n orfodol mewn Hindŵaeth. Dewis unigolyn yw natur a lle defodau. Mae rhai Hindwiaid defosiynol yn perfformio defodau dyddiol fel addoli ar doriad y wawr ar ôl cael bath (fel arfer mewn cysegr teulu, ac yn nodweddiadol mae'n cynnwys goleuo lamp ac yn cynnig bwydydd o flaen delweddau o'r duwiau), llefaru o sgriptiau crefyddol, canu bhajans (emynau defosiynol), [[ioga]], [[myfyrdod]], llafarganu [[mantra]]s ac eraill.{{Sfn|Heitzman|Worden|1996|pp=145–146}}


Gwelir defodau Vedig gyda thân (''yajna'') a llafarganu emynau Vedig ar achlysuron arbennig, fel priodasau Hindŵaidd.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=A|year=1985|title=Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition|journal=Journal of Ecumenical Studies|volume=22|issue=1|pages=69–80}}</ref> Mae digwyddiadau mawr eraill bywyd, fel defodau ar ôl [[marwolaeth]], yn cynnwys ''yajña'' a [[Mantra|llafarganu mantras]] Vedig.<ref group="web">{{Cite web|title=Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm|access-date=25 June 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605133731/http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm|archivedate=5 June 2007}}</ref>
Gwelir defodau Vedig gyda thân (''yajna'') a llafarganu emynau Vedig ar achlysuron arbennig, fel priodasau Hindŵaidd.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=A|year=1985|title=Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition|journal=Journal of Ecumenical Studies|volume=22|issue=1|pages=69–80}}</ref> Mae digwyddiadau mawr eraill bywyd, fel defodau ar ôl [[marwolaeth]], yn cynnwys ''yajña'' a [[Mantra|llafarganu mantras]] Vedig.<ref group="web">{{Cite web|title=Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm|access-date=25 Mehefin 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605133731/http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm|archivedate=5 Mehefin 2007}}</ref>


Mae geiriau'r mantras yn "sanctaidd." {{Sfn|Holdrege|1996}}{{Sfn|Holdrege|1996}} Wrth eu defnyddio mewn defodau Vedig maent yn dod yn [[Dewiniaeth|synau hudol]], "yn ddull i gyrraedd y nod."{{Refn|Klostermaier: "''Brahman'', derived from the root ''bŗh'' = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified [[Speech act|speech-act]]" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}} quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), [https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds ''Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds''], p.4.}} Yn y persbectif Brahmanaidd, mae gan y synau eu hystyr eu hunain, ystyrir mantras yn "rythmau cyntefig cyntaf y greadigaeth", cyn y ffurfiau y maent yn cyfeirio atynt.{{Sfn|Holdrege|1996}} Trwy eu llafarganu mae'r cosmos yn cael ei adfywio, "trwy fywiogi a maethu ffurfiau'r greadigaeth yn eu sylfaen. Cyn belled â bod purdeb y synau yn cael ei gadw, bydd adrodd y ''mantras'' yn effeithiol, ni waeth a yw bodau dynol yn deall eu hystyr disylwedd."{{Sfn|Holdrege|1996}}<ref name="Coward2008p114">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Coward|2008}}: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."</ref>
Mae geiriau'r mantras yn "sanctaidd." {{Sfn|Holdrege|1996}}{{Sfn|Holdrege|1996}} Wrth eu defnyddio mewn defodau Vedig maent yn dod yn [[Dewiniaeth|synau hudol]], "yn ddull i gyrraedd y nod."{{Refn|Klostermaier: "''Brahman'', derived from the root ''bŗh'' = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified [[Speech act|speech-act]]" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}} quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), [https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds ''Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds''], p.4.}} Yn y persbectif Brahmanaidd, mae gan y synau eu hystyr eu hunain, ystyrir mantras yn "rythmau cyntefig cyntaf y greadigaeth", cyn y ffurfiau y maent yn cyfeirio atynt.{{Sfn|Holdrege|1996}} Trwy eu llafarganu mae'r cosmos yn cael ei adfywio, "trwy fywiogi a maethu ffurfiau'r greadigaeth yn eu sylfaen. Cyn belled â bod purdeb y synau yn cael ei gadw, bydd adrodd y ''mantras'' yn effeithiol, ni waeth a yw bodau dynol yn deall eu hystyr disylwedd."{{Sfn|Holdrege|1996}}<ref name="Coward2008p114">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Coward|2008}}: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."</ref>
Llinell 109: Llinell 107:
=== Gwyliau ===
=== Gwyliau ===
[[Delwedd:Deepawali-festival.jpg|de|bawd| Mae gŵyl y goleuadau, [[Divali|Diwali]], yn cael ei dathlu gan Hindwiaid ledled y byd.]]
[[Delwedd:Deepawali-festival.jpg|de|bawd| Mae gŵyl y goleuadau, [[Divali|Diwali]], yn cael ei dathlu gan Hindwiaid ledled y byd.]]
[[Delwedd:Hindus_in_Ghana_celebrating_Ganesh_Chaturti.jpg|bawd| Hindwiaid yn Ghana yn dathlu Ganesh Chaturti]]
[[Delwedd:Hindus_in_Ghana_celebrating_Ganesh_Chaturti.jpg|bawd|Hindwiaid yn Ghana yn dathlu Ganesh Chaturti]]
Mae gwyliau Hindŵaidd (Sansgrit: ''Utsava'' ; yn llythrennol: "i godi'n uwch") yn seremonïau sy'n plethu bywyd unigol a chymdeithasol i dharma.<ref name="sandrarobinson" /><ref name="yustf">{{Cite book|last=Yust|first=Karen-Marie|title=Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7425-4463-5|page=234|chapter=Sacred Celebrations|postscript=. See also Chapter 18.}}</ref> Mae gan Hindŵaeth lawer o wyliau trwy gydol y flwyddyn, lle mae'r dyddiadau'n cael eu gosod gan y calendr Hindŵaidd lunisolar, ac mae llawer ohonynt yn cyd-daro naill ai â'r lleuad lawn (''Holi'') neu'r lleuad newydd (''Diwali''), yn aml gyda newidiadau tymhorol.<ref name="denisecushf">{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Sandra|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|editor-last=Cush|editor-first=Denise|page=907}}</ref> Dim ond yn rhanbarthol y mae rhai gwyliau i'w cael ac maen nhw'n dathlu traddodiadau lleol, tra bod ambell un fel ''Holi'' a ''Diwali'' yn draws-Hindŵaidd.<ref name="denisecushf" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Foulston|first=Lynn|title=Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices|last2=Abbott|first2=Stuart|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=2009|isbn=978-1-902210-43-8|page=155}}</ref> Mae'r gwyliau fel arfer yn dathlu digwyddiadau Hindŵaidd, gan gysylltu themâu ysbrydol a dathlu agweddau ar berthnasoedd dynol fel y berthynas agos Chwaer-Frawd dros ''ŵyl Raksha Bandhan'' (neu Bhai Dooj).<ref name="yustf" /><ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Holberg|editor-first=Dale|title=Students' Britannica India|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica (India)|year=2000|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|volume=2|page=120|chapter=Festival calendar of India|quote=Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection.}}</ref> Mae'r un ŵyl weithiau'n nodi gwahanol straeon yn dibynnu ar yr enwad Hindŵaidd, ac mae'r dathliadau'n ymgorffori themâu rhanbarthol, amaethyddiaeth draddodiadol, celfyddydau lleol, cyfarfyddiadau teuluol, defodau a gwleddoedd Puja.<ref name="sandrarobinson">{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Sandra|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|editor-last=Cush|editor-first=Denise|pages=908–912}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Frazier|first=Jessica|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4725-1151-5|pages=255, 271–273}}</ref>
Mae gwyliau Hindŵaidd (Sansgrit: ''Utsava'' ; yn llythrennol: "i godi'n uwch") yn seremonïau sy'n plethu bywyd unigol a chymdeithasol i dharma.<ref name="sandrarobinson" /><ref name="yustf">{{Cite book|last=Yust|first=Karen-Marie|title=Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7425-4463-5|page=234|chapter=Sacred Celebrations|postscript=. See also Chapter 18.}}</ref> Mae gan Hindŵaeth lawer o wyliau trwy gydol y flwyddyn, lle mae'r dyddiadau'n cael eu gosod gan y calendr Hindŵaidd lunisolar, ac mae llawer ohonynt yn cyd-daro naill ai â'r lleuad lawn (''Holi'') neu'r lleuad newydd (''Diwali''), yn aml gyda newidiadau tymhorol.<ref name="denisecushf">{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Sandra|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|editor-last=Cush|editor-first=Denise|page=907}}</ref> Dim ond yn rhanbarthol y mae rhai gwyliau i'w cael ac maen nhw'n dathlu traddodiadau lleol, tra bod ambell un fel ''Holi'' a ''Diwali'' yn draws-Hindŵaidd.<ref name="denisecushf" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Foulston|first=Lynn|title=Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices|last2=Abbott|first2=Stuart|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=2009|isbn=978-1-902210-43-8|page=155}}</ref> Mae'r gwyliau fel arfer yn dathlu digwyddiadau Hindŵaidd, gan gysylltu themâu ysbrydol a dathlu agweddau ar berthnasoedd dynol fel y berthynas agos Chwaer-Frawd dros ''ŵyl Raksha Bandhan'' (neu Bhai Dooj).<ref name="yustf" /><ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Holberg|editor-first=Dale|title=Students' Britannica India|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica (India)|year=2000|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|volume=2|page=120|chapter=Festival calendar of India|quote=Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection.}}</ref> Mae'r un ŵyl weithiau'n nodi gwahanol straeon yn dibynnu ar yr enwad Hindŵaidd, ac mae'r dathliadau'n ymgorffori themâu rhanbarthol, amaethyddiaeth draddodiadol, celfyddydau lleol, cyfarfyddiadau teuluol, defodau a gwleddoedd Puja.<ref name="sandrarobinson">{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Sandra|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0|editor-last=Cush|editor-first=Denise|pages=908–912}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Frazier|first=Jessica|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4725-1151-5|pages=255, 271–273}}</ref>


=== Pererindota ===
=== Pererindota ===
Mae llawer o ymlynwyr yn ymgymryd â [[Pererindod|phererindodau]], sydd yn hanesyddol wedi bod yn rhan bwysig o Hindŵaeth ac yn parhau felly heddiw.{{Sfn|Fuller|2004}} Ceir safleoedd pererindota yn ''Tirtha'', ''Kshetra'', ''Gopitha'' neu ''Mahalaya''.{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002n}}{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013}} Enw'r broses neu'r siwrnai sy'n gysylltiedig â ''Tirtha'' yw ''Tirtha-yatra''.{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|page=2}} Yn ôl y testun Hindŵaidd ''Skanda Purana'', mae tri math i Tirtha: mae Jangam Tirtha i le y gellir ei symud o sadhu, rishi, guru. Mae Sthawar Tirtha i le na ellir ei symud, fel Benaras, Haridwar, Mynydd Kailash, afonydd sanctaidd; tra bod Manas Tirtha i le o feddwl, o wirionedd, elusen, amynedd, tosturi, neu'r Hunan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sharma|first=Krishan|last2=Sinha|first2=Anil Kishore|last3=Banerjee|first3=Bijon Gopal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkUMlsu_YIC|title=Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2009|isbn=978-81-89091-09-5|pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Maw|first=Geoffrey Waring|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ|title=Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas|publisher=Sessions Book Trust|year=1997|isbn=978-1-85072-190-1|page=7|access-date=5 July 2017}}</ref> Mae ''Tīrtha-yatra'', yn unrhyw beth sydd â gwerth salvific i Hindw, ac mae'n cynnwys safleoedd pererindod fel mynyddoedd neu goedwigoedd neu lan y môr neu afonydd neu byllau, yn ogystal â rhinweddau, gweithredoedd, astudiaethau neu gyflwr meddwl.{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013}}{{Sfn|Michaels|2004}}
Mae llawer o ymlynwyr yn ymgymryd â [[Pererindod|phererindodau]], sydd yn hanesyddol wedi bod yn rhan bwysig o Hindŵaeth ac yn parhau felly heddiw.{{Sfn|Fuller|2004}} Ceir safleoedd pererindota yn ''Tirtha'', ''Kshetra'', ''Gopitha'' neu ''Mahalaya''.{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002n}}{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013}} Enw'r broses neu'r siwrnai sy'n gysylltiedig â ''Tirtha'' yw ''Tirtha-yatra''.{{Sfn|Bhardwaj|1983|page=2}} Yn ôl y testun Hindŵaidd ''Skanda Purana'', mae tri math i Tirtha: mae Jangam Tirtha i le y gellir ei symud o sadhu, rishi, guru. Mae Sthawar Tirtha i le na ellir ei symud, fel Benaras, Haridwar, Mynydd Kailash, afonydd sanctaidd; tra bod Manas Tirtha i le o feddwl, o wirionedd, elusen, amynedd, tosturi, neu'r Hunan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sharma|first=Krishan|last2=Sinha|first2=Anil Kishore|last3=Banerjee|first3=Bijon Gopal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrkUMlsu_YIC|title=Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2009|isbn=978-81-89091-09-5|pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Maw|first=Geoffrey Waring|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ|title=Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas|publisher=Sessions Book Trust|year=1997|isbn=978-1-85072-190-1|page=7|access-date=5 Gorffennaf 2017}}</ref> Mae ''Tīrtha-yatra'', yn unrhyw beth sydd â gwerth salvific i Hindw, ac mae'n cynnwys safleoedd pererindod fel mynyddoedd neu goedwigoedd neu lan y môr neu afonydd neu byllau, yn ogystal â rhinweddau, gweithredoedd, astudiaethau neu gyflwr meddwl.{{Sfn|Jacobsen|2013}}{{Sfn|Michaels|2004}}


== Diwylliant ==
== Diwylliant ==
Mae'r term " [[Hindŵaeth|diwylliant Hindŵaidd]] " yn cyfeirio at agweddau cymedrig ar ddiwylliant sy'n ymwneud â'r grefydd, fel [[Gŵyl|gwyliau]] a chodau gwisg a ddilynir gan yr Hindwiaid y gellir eu hysbrydoli'n bennaf o [[Diwylliant India|ddiwylliant India]] a [[De-ddwyrain Asia]]. Er y bu cymysgedd o ddiwylliant gwahanol mewn Hindŵaeth, mae hefyd wedi dylanwadu ar ddiwylliannau llawer o genhedloedd, yn bennaf y rhan o India Fwyaf.
Mae'r term " diwylliant Hindŵaidd " yn cyfeirio at agweddau cymedrig ar ddiwylliant sy'n ymwneud â'r grefydd, fel [[Gŵyl|gwyliau]] a chodau gwisg a ddilynir gan yr Hindwiaid y gellir eu hysbrydoli'n bennaf o [[Diwylliant India|ddiwylliant India]] a [[De-ddwyrain Asia]]. Er y bu cymysgedd o ddiwylliant gwahanol mewn Hindŵaeth, mae hefyd wedi dylanwadu ar ddiwylliannau llawer o genhedloedd, yn bennaf y rhan o India Fwyaf.


== Darllen pellach ==
== Darllen pellach ==
Llinell 192: Llinell 190:
* {{cite book |surname=Cœdès |given=George |author-link=George Coedès |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |translator=Susan Brown Cowing |year=1968 |place=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* {{cite book |surname=Cœdès |given=George |author-link=George Coedès |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |translator=Susan Brown Cowing |year=1968 |place=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Comans |first=Michael |title=The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2000 |location=Delhi}}
* {{Cite book |last=Comans |first=Michael |title=The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2000 |location=Delhi}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cousins |first=L. S. |title=The Penguin Handbook of the World's Living Religions |publisher=Penguin |year=2010 |chapter=Buddhism |isbn=9780141955049 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bNAJiwpmEo0C |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211114/https://books.google.com/books?id=bNAJiwpmEo0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Cousins |first=L. S. |title=The Penguin Handbook of the World's Living Religions |publisher=Penguin |year=2010 |chapter=Buddhism |isbn=9780141955049 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bNAJiwpmEo0C |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211114/https://books.google.com/books?id=bNAJiwpmEo0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Coward |first=Harold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |title=The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7914-7336-8 |author-link=Harold Coward |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Coward |first=Harold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |title=The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7914-7336-8 |author-link=Harold Coward |access-date=2 Gorffennaf 2015 |archive-date=1 Ionawr 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025131/https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Crangle |first=Edward Fitzpatrick |title=The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=1994}}
* {{Cite book |last=Crangle |first=Edward Fitzpatrick |title=The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=1994}}
<!-- D -->
<!-- D -->
Llinell 206: Llinell 204:
* {{Citation |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iM_QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press USA |isbn=978-0-19-936007-9 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |author-link=Wendy Doniger|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174158/https://books.google.com/books?id=iM_QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iM_QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press USA |isbn=978-0-19-936007-9 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |author-link=Wendy Doniger|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174158/https://books.google.com/books?id=iM_QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}
<!-- E -->
<!-- E -->
* {{Cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft067n99v9;brand=ucpress|title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760|publisher=University of California Press|year=1993|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|access-date=8 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527003759/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft067n99v9;brand=ucpress|archive-date=27 May 2016|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft067n99v9;brand=ucpress|title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760|publisher=University of California Press|year=1993|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|access-date=8 Awst 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527003759/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft067n99v9;brand=ucpress|archive-date=27 Mai 2016|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|year=2000a|title=Temple desecration in pre-modern India. Part I|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples1.pdf|journal=Frontline|access-date=8 August 2015|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples1.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|year=2000a|title=Temple desecration in pre-modern India. Part I|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples1.pdf|journal=Frontline|access-date=8 Awst 2015|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_eaton_temples1.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Eaton |first=Richard M.|title=Slavery and South Asian History |publisher=Indiana University Press 0–2533|year=2006|isbn=978-0-253-34810-4 |editor-last=Chatterjee|editor-first=Indrani|chapter=Introduction|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|editor-last2=Eaton|editor-first2=Richard M.}}
* {{Cite book|last=Eaton |first=Richard M.|title=Slavery and South Asian History |publisher=Indiana University Press 0–2533|year=2006|isbn=978-0-253-34810-4 |editor-last=Chatterjee|editor-first=Indrani|chapter=Introduction|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|editor-last2=Eaton|editor-first2=Richard M.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uD_0P6gS-vMC |title=India: A Sacred Geography |publisher=Harmony |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-385-53190-0 |author-link=Diana L. Eck }}
* {{Cite book |last=Eck |first=Diana L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uD_0P6gS-vMC |title=India: A Sacred Geography |publisher=Harmony |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-385-53190-0 |author-link=Diana L. Eck }}
Llinell 223: Llinell 221:
* {{Cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=The Tantric Body. The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion|publisher=I.B Taurus|year=2006|author-link=Gavin Flood}}
* {{Cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=The Tantric Body. The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion|publisher=I.B Taurus|year=2006|author-link=Gavin Flood}}
* {{Cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|author-link=Gavin Flood}}
* {{Cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|author-link=Gavin Flood}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RmGKHu20hA0C |title=Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-898723-60-8 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=22 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122044339/https://books.google.com/books?id=RmGKHu20hA0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RmGKHu20hA0C |title=Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-898723-60-8 |access-date=10 Gorffennaf 2016 |archive-date=22 Ionawr 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122044339/https://books.google.com/books?id=RmGKHu20hA0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Fuller |first=Christopher John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-12048-5 |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107064106/https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Fuller |first=Christopher John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-12048-5 |access-date=10 Gorffennaf 2016 |archive-date=7 Ionawr 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107064106/https://books.google.com/books?id=To6XSeBUW3oC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Gaborieau |first=Marc |date=June 1985 |title=From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom, Ritual and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in South Asia |journal=Anthropology Today |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.2307/3033123 |jstor=3033123}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Gaborieau |first=Marc |date=June 1985 |title=From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom, Ritual and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in South Asia |journal=Anthropology Today |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.2307/3033123 |jstor=3033123}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ghurye |first=Govind Sadashiv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTNmCIc9hCUC |title=The Scheduled Tribes of India |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-8785-5308-2 |author-link=G. S. Ghurye |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/https://books.google.com/books?id=pTNmCIc9hCUC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Ghurye |first=Govind Sadashiv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTNmCIc9hCUC |title=The Scheduled Tribes of India |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-8785-5308-2 |author-link=G. S. Ghurye |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174152/https://books.google.com/books?id=pTNmCIc9hCUC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Gombrich |first=Richard F. |url=https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis00gomb |title=Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |publisher=London: Routledge |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-415-07585-5 |author-link=Richard Gombrich |url-access=registration }}
* {{Cite book |last=Gombrich |first=Richard F. |url=https://archive.org/details/theravadabuddhis00gomb |title=Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |publisher=London: Routledge |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-415-07585-5 |author-link=Richard Gombrich |url-access=registration }}
* {{Cite book |last=Gombrich |first=Richard F. |title=Theravada Buddhism. A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |location=London and New York |author-link=Richard Gombrich}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gombrich |first=Richard F. |title=Theravada Buddhism. A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |location=London and New York |author-link=Richard Gombrich}}
Llinell 234: Llinell 232:
<!-- H -->
<!-- H -->
* {{Citation | last=Halbfass | first=Wilhelm | year=1988 | title=India and Europe: An Essay in Understanding | publisher=State University of New York Press}}
* {{Citation | last=Halbfass | first=Wilhelm | year=1988 | title=India and Europe: An Essay in Understanding | publisher=State University of New York Press}}
* {{Cite book |last=Halbfass |first=Wilhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5fImMZMqNIC |title=Tradition and Reflection |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7914-0361-7 |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211115/https://books.google.com/books?id=-5fImMZMqNIC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Halbfass |first=Wilhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5fImMZMqNIC |title=Tradition and Reflection |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7914-0361-7 |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211115/https://books.google.com/books?id=-5fImMZMqNIC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Halbfass |first=Wilhelm |title=Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedānta |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1995}}
* {{Cite book |last=Halbfass |first=Wilhelm |title=Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedānta |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1995}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hark |first1=Lisa |last2=DeLisser |first2=Horace |date=7 September 2011 |title=Achieving Cultural Competency |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hark |first1=Lisa |last2=DeLisser |first2=Horace |date=7 Medi 2011 |title=Achieving Cultural Competency |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harman |first=William |title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-905-8 |editor-last=Rinehart |editor-first=Robin |pages=99–122 |chapter=Hindu Devotion}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harman |first=William |title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-905-8 |editor-last=Rinehart |editor-first=Robin |pages=99–122 |chapter=Hindu Devotion}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harshananda |first=Swami |chapter=A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas |title=Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-7120-121-1 |edition=2nd |location=Mylapore}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harshananda |first=Swami |chapter=A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas |title=Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-7120-121-1 |edition=2nd |location=Mylapore}}
Llinell 262: Llinell 260:
* {{Cite encyclopedia |surname=Jones |given=Constance A. |surname2=Ryan |given2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url={{Google books|OgMmceadQ3gC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2007 |place=New York |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions. [[J. Gordon Melton]], Series Editor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211115/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PR17 |archive-date=2020-04-02 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |surname=Jones |given=Constance A. |surname2=Ryan |given2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url={{Google books|OgMmceadQ3gC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2007 |place=New York |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions. [[J. Gordon Melton]], Series Editor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211115/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PR17 |archive-date=2020-04-02 |url-status=live}}
* {{Citation | last =Joseph | first =Tony | year =2018 | title =Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From | publisher =Juggernaut}}
* {{Citation | last =Joseph | first =Tony | year =2018 | title =Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From | publisher =Juggernaut}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Jouhki |first=Jukka |year=2006 |title=Orientalism and India |url=http://research.jyu.fi/jargonia/artikkelit/jargonia8.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=J@rgonia |volume=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525144417/http://research.jyu.fi/jargonia/artikkelit/jargonia8.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 |access-date=20 November 2013 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Jouhki |first=Jukka |year=2006 |title=Orientalism and India |url=http://research.jyu.fi/jargonia/artikkelit/jargonia8.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=J@rgonia |volume=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525144417/http://research.jyu.fi/jargonia/artikkelit/jargonia8.pdf |archive-date=25 Mai 2017 |access-date=20 Tachwedd 2013 }}
<!-- K -->
<!-- K -->
*{{Cite book |last=Kane |first=P. V. |url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfDharmasastraancientAndMediaevalReligiousAndCivilLawV.4 |title=History of Dharmaśāstra: Ancient and Medieval Religious and Civil Law in India |year=1953 |volume=4 |author-link=Pandurang Vaman Kane }}
*{{Cite book |last=Kane |first=P. V. |url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfDharmasastraancientAndMediaevalReligiousAndCivilLawV.4 |title=History of Dharmaśāstra: Ancient and Medieval Religious and Civil Law in India |year=1953 |volume=4 |author-link=Pandurang Vaman Kane }}
Llinell 273: Llinell 271:
* {{cite book |year=2003 |surname1=Kinney |given1=Ann R. |surname2=Klokke |given2=Marijke J.|surname3=Kieven |given3=Lydia |title=Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java |place=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |url={{Google books|sfa2FiIERLYC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-8248-2779-3}}
* {{cite book |year=2003 |surname1=Kinney |given1=Ann R. |surname2=Klokke |given2=Marijke J.|surname3=Kieven |given3=Lydia |title=Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java |place=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |url={{Google books|sfa2FiIERLYC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-8248-2779-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=1994 |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |edition=2nd |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier}}
* {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=1994 |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |edition=2nd |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier}}
* {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2007 |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=22 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122033955/https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2007 |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=22 Ionawr 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122033955/https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |date=5 July 2007a |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 |chapter=The Divine Presence in Space and Time – Murti, Tirtha, Kala}}
* {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |date=5 Gorffennaf 2007a |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 |chapter=The Divine Presence in Space and Time – Murti, Tirtha, Kala}}
* {{Citation |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2007b |title=Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-026-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P0VCO1900dMC |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174233/https://books.google.com/books?id=P0VCO1900dMC |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2007b |title=Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-78074-026-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P0VCO1900dMC |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174233/https://books.google.com/books?id=P0VCO1900dMC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2010 |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC }}
* {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2010 |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC }}
* {{Citation |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2014 |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-7807-4672-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1UQBwAAQBAJ |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174254/https://books.google.com/books?id=v1UQBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2014 |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism |publisher=Oneworld Publications |isbn=978-1-7807-4672-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1UQBwAAQBAJ |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174254/https://books.google.com/books?id=v1UQBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Knott |first=Kim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6 |title=Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-160645-8 |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174324/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Knott |first=Kim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6 |title=Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-160645-8 |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174324/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Koller |first=John M. |year=1968 |title=Puruṣārtha as Human Aims |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=315–319 |doi=10.2307/1398408 |jstor=1398408}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Koller |first=John M. |year=1968 |title=Puruṣārtha as Human Aims |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=315–319 |doi=10.2307/1398408 |jstor=1398408}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Koller |first=John M. |year=1984 |title=The Sacred Thread: Hinduism in Its Continuity and Diversity, by J. L. Brockington (Book Review) |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=234–236 |doi=10.2307/1398925 |jstor=1398925}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Koller |first=John M. |year=1984 |title=The Sacred Thread: Hinduism in Its Continuity and Diversity, by J. L. Brockington (Book Review) |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=234–236 |doi=10.2307/1398925 |jstor=1398925}}
Llinell 289: Llinell 287:
* {{Cite book |last=Larson |first=Gerald James |title=World Religions in America: An Introduction |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2009 |pages=179–198 |chapter=Hinduism |isbn=9781611640472 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C }}
* {{Cite book |last=Larson |first=Gerald James |title=World Religions in America: An Introduction |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2009 |pages=179–198 |chapter=Hinduism |isbn=9781611640472 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C }}
* {{Citation |last=Leaf |first=Murray J. |title=The Anthropology of Eastern Religions: Ideas, Organizations, and Constituencies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRavAwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9780739192412 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174232/https://books.google.com/books?id=NRavAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Leaf |first=Murray J. |title=The Anthropology of Eastern Religions: Ideas, Organizations, and Constituencies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRavAwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9780739192412 |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174232/https://books.google.com/books?id=NRavAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lingat |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sauo8iSIj7YC |title=The Classical Law of India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-520-01898-3 |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=22 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222192718/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sauo8iSIj7YC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lingat |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sauo8iSIj7YC |title=The Classical Law of India |publisher=University of California Press |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-520-01898-3 |access-date=5 Gorffennaf 2017 |archive-date=22 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222192718/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sauo8iSIj7YC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lipner |first=Julius |author-link=Julius J. Lipner |title=Hindus: their religious beliefs and practices |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-203-86464-7 |edition=2nd |location=Abingdon |oclc=812916971}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lipner |first=Julius |author-link=Julius J. Lipner |title=Hindus: their religious beliefs and practices |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-203-86464-7 |edition=2nd |location=Abingdon |oclc=812916971}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lochtefeld |first=James G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2002a |isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |access-date=10 November 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228001754/https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC |url-status=live }} {{ISBN|978-0-8239-2287-1}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Lochtefeld |first=James G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2002a |isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |access-date=10 Tachwedd 2017 |archive-date=28 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228001754/https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC |url-status=live }} {{ISBN|978-0-8239-2287-1}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Lochtefeld |first=James G. |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2002n |isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4 |url-access=registration }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lochtefeld |first=James G. |url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2002n |isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4 |url-access=registration }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lockard |first=Craig A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500 |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-618-38612-3 |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=26 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126122832/https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lockard |first=Craig A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500 |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-618-38612-3 |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=26 Tachwedd 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126122832/https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Long |first=Jeffrey D. |title=Jainism: An Introduction |publisher=I. B. Tauris |year=2013}}
* {{Cite book |last=Long |first=Jeffrey D. |title=Jainism: An Introduction |publisher=I. B. Tauris |year=2013}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Lorenzen|first=David N.|author-link=David N. Lorenzen|year=1999|title=Who Invented Hinduism?|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=41|issue=4|pages=630–659|doi=10.1017/s0010417599003084}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Lorenzen|first=David N.|author-link=David N. Lorenzen|year=1999|title=Who Invented Hinduism?|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=41|issue=4|pages=630–659|doi=10.1017/s0010417599003084}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lorenzen|first=David N.|title=The Roots of Tantra|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7914-5306-3|editor-last=Harper|editor-first=Katherine Anne|chapter=Early Evidence for Tantric Religion|author-link=David N. Lorenzen|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=Robert L.}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lorenzen|first=David N.|title=The Roots of Tantra|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7914-5306-3|editor-last=Harper|editor-first=Katherine Anne|chapter=Early Evidence for Tantric Religion|author-link=David N. Lorenzen|editor-last2=Brown|editor-first2=Robert L.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lorenzen |first=David N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-YmMWpcVEC |title=Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History |publisher=Yoda Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-902272-6-1 |author-link=David Lorenzen |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=3 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103164759/https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-YmMWpcVEC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lorenzen |first=David N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-YmMWpcVEC |title=Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History |publisher=Yoda Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-902272-6-1 |author-link=David Lorenzen |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=3 Ionawr 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103164759/https://books.google.com/books?id=SO-YmMWpcVEC |url-status=live }}
<!-- M -->
<!-- M -->
* {{Cite book|last=Malik|first=Jamal|title=Islam in South Asia: A Short History|publisher=Brill Academic|year=2008|isbn=978-90-04-16859-6|author-link=Jamal Malik}}
* {{Cite book|last=Malik|first=Jamal|title=Islam in South Asia: A Short History|publisher=Brill Academic|year=2008|isbn=978-90-04-16859-6|author-link=Jamal Malik}}
Llinell 303: Llinell 301:
* {{Cite book |last=McMahan |first=David L. |title=The Making of Buddhist Modernism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-518327-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=McMahan |first=David L. |title=The Making of Buddhist Modernism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-518327-6}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|year=2010 |editor-surname1=Melton |editor-given1=J. Gordon |editor-surname2=Baumann |editor-given2=Martin |editor-link1=J. Gordon Melton |title=Religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices |edition=2nd |place=Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |volume=6-volume Set |isbn=978-1-59884-203-6 |url={{Google books|v2yiyLLOj88C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530001305/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C |archive-date=2016-05-30 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|year=2010 |editor-surname1=Melton |editor-given1=J. Gordon |editor-surname2=Baumann |editor-given2=Martin |editor-link1=J. Gordon Melton |title=Religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices |edition=2nd |place=Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |volume=6-volume Set |isbn=978-1-59884-203-6 |url={{Google books|v2yiyLLOj88C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530001305/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C |archive-date=2016-05-30 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jID3TuoiOMQC |title=Hinduism: Past and Present |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-08953-9 |translator-last=Harshav |translator-first=Barbara |author-link=Axel Michaels |access-date=5 July 2017 |archive-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205003241/https://books.google.com/books?id=jID3TuoiOMQC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jID3TuoiOMQC |title=Hinduism: Past and Present |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-08953-9 |translator-last=Harshav |translator-first=Barbara |author-link=Axel Michaels |access-date=5 Gorffennaf 2017 |archive-date=5 Chwefror 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205003241/https://books.google.com/books?id=jID3TuoiOMQC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Michell |first=George |title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-226-53230-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=4 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204224928/https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Michell |first=George |title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-226-53230-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=4 Chwefror 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204224928/https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Michell |first=George |title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-226-53230-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Michell |first=George |title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-226-53230-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Amalendu |title=Identity and Religion: Foundations of Anti-Islamism in India |publisher=SAGE |year=2004}}
* {{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Amalendu |title=Identity and Religion: Foundations of Anti-Islamism in India |publisher=SAGE |year=2004}}
* {{Cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C |title=Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |year=1974 |isbn=978-1-4212-6531-5 |series=Elibron Classics |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |access-date=8 July 2007 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174256/https://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C |title=Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus |publisher=Adamant Media Corporation |year=1974 |isbn=978-1-4212-6531-5 |series=Elibron Classics |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |access-date=8 Gorffennaf 2007 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174256/https://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/index.html |title=English Sanskrit dictionary |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-206-1509-0 |location=Delhi |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |access-date=24 July 2007 |orig-year=first published 1872 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174240/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/index.html |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/index.html |title=English Sanskrit dictionary |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-206-1509-0 |location=Delhi |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |access-date=24 Gorffennaf 2007 |orig-year=first published 1872 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174240/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/index.html |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Muesse |first=Mark William |url=http://www.docshut.com/rquv/lectures-on-great-world-religions-hinduism.html |title=Great World Religions: Hinduism |year=2003 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Muesse |first=Mark William |url=http://www.docshut.com/rquv/lectures-on-great-world-religions-hinduism.html |title=Great World Religions: Hinduism |year=2003 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Muesse |first=Mark W. |year=2011 |title=The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-0-8006-9790-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/hindutraditionsc00mues |url-access=registration }}
* {{Cite book |last=Muesse |first=Mark W. |year=2011 |title=The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-0-8006-9790-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/hindutraditionsc00mues |url-access=registration }}
Llinell 317: Llinell 315:
* {{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=Vasudha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E0Mm6S1XFYAC |title=Hinduism |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4358-5620-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=Vasudha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E0Mm6S1XFYAC |title=Hinduism |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4358-5620-2 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nath |first=Vijay |year=2001 |title=From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition |journal=Social Scientist |volume=29 |issue=3/4 |pages=19–50 |doi=10.2307/3518337 |jstor=3518337}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nath |first=Vijay |year=2001 |title=From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition |journal=Social Scientist |volume=29 |issue=3/4 |pages=19–50 |doi=10.2307/3518337 |jstor=3518337}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |year=2009 |title=World Religions in America: An Introduction |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |edition=4th |isbn=978-0-664-23320-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&pg=PA183 |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418085646/https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&pg=PA183 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Neusner |editor-first=Jacob |year=2009 |title=World Religions in America: An Introduction |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |edition=4th |isbn=978-0-664-23320-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&pg=PA183 |access-date=2 Gorffennaf 2015 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418085646/https://books.google.com/books?id=34vGv_HDGG8C&pg=PA183 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Nicholson |first=Andrew J. |year=2010 |title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History |volume=3 |series=South Asia across the disciplines |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14986-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fv4rtMlLv3kC }}
* {{Cite book |last=Nicholson |first=Andrew J. |year=2010 |title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History |volume=3 |series=South Asia across the disciplines |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14986-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fv4rtMlLv3kC }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Noble |first=Allen |year=1998 |title=South Asian Sacred Places |journal=Journal of Cultural Geography |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1080/08873639809478317}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Noble |first=Allen |year=1998 |title=South Asian Sacred Places |journal=Journal of Cultural Geography |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1080/08873639809478317}}
* {{Cite book |last=Novetzke |first=Christian Lee |title=Religion and Public Memory |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-231-51256-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Novetzke |first=Christian Lee |title=Religion and Public Memory |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-231-51256-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JLMQh4oc38gC&pg=PA361 |title=The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03059-6 |access-date=25 May 2013 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174239/https://books.google.com/books?id=JLMQh4oc38gC&pg=PA361 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JLMQh4oc38gC&pg=PA361 |title=The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03059-6 |access-date=25 Mai 2013 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174239/https://books.google.com/books?id=JLMQh4oc38gC&pg=PA361 |url-status=live }}
<!-- O -->
<!-- O -->
* {{Cite book |last=Oberlies |first=T. |title=Die Religion des Rgveda |publisher=Institut für Indologie der Universität Wien |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-900271-32-9 |location=Vienna}}
* {{Cite book |last=Oberlies |first=T. |title=Die Religion des Rgveda |publisher=Institut für Indologie der Universität Wien |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-900271-32-9 |location=Vienna}}
Llinell 331: Llinell 329:
* {{Cite book |last=Pennington |first=Brian K. |title=Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-516655-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pennington |first=Brian K. |title=Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-516655-2}}
* {{cite book |year=2011 |surname1=Phuong |given1=Tran Ky |surname2=Lockhart |given2=Bruce |title=The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art |url={{Google books|GUHeBgAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971-69-459-3}}
* {{cite book |year=2011 |surname1=Phuong |given1=Tran Ky |surname2=Lockhart |given2=Bruce |title=The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art |url={{Google books|GUHeBgAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=978-9971-69-459-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Possehl |first=Gregory L. |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |date=11 November 2002 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9 |pages=141–156 |chapter=Indus religion |author-link=Gregory Possehl |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Possehl |first=Gregory L. |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |date=11 Tachwedd 2002 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9 |pages=141–156 |chapter=Indus religion |author-link=Gregory Possehl |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Prentiss |first=Karen Pechilis |title=The Embodiment of Bhakti |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-535190-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Prentiss |first=Karen Pechilis |title=The Embodiment of Bhakti |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-535190-3}}
<!-- R -->
<!-- R -->
Llinell 351: Llinell 349:
* {{Cite book |last=Sen Gupta |first=Anima |title=The Evolution of the Sāṃkhya School of Thought |publisher=South Asia Books |year=1986 |isbn=978-81-215-0019-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sen Gupta |first=Anima |title=The Evolution of the Sāṃkhya School of Thought |publisher=South Asia Books |year=1986 |isbn=978-81-215-0019-7}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sharf |first=Robert H. |year=1993 |title=The Zen of Japanese Nationalism |url=http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Zen_of_Japanese_Nationalism.html |journal=History of Religions |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–43 |doi=10.1086/463354 |s2cid=161535877 |access-date=8 December 2013 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174255/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Zen_of_Japanese_Nationalism.html |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sharf |first=Robert H. |year=1993 |title=The Zen of Japanese Nationalism |url=http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Zen_of_Japanese_Nationalism.html |journal=History of Religions |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–43 |doi=10.1086/463354 |s2cid=161535877 |access-date=8 December 2013 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174255/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Zen_of_Japanese_Nationalism.html |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite web |last=Sharf |first=Robert H. |year=1995 |title=Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited |url=http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf |access-date=8 December 2013 |archive-date=2 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202090252/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite web |last=Sharf |first=Robert H. |year=1995 |title=Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited |url=http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf |access-date=8 December 2013 |archive-date=2 Chwefror 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202090252/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book|last=Sharma|first=Arvind|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|author-link=Arvind Sharma}}
* {{Cite book|last=Sharma|first=Arvind|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|author-link=Arvind Sharma}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=Arvind|author-link=Arvind Sharma|year=2002|title=On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=1–36|doi=10.1163/15685270252772759|jstor=3270470}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=Arvind|author-link=Arvind Sharma|year=2002|title=On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=1–36|doi=10.1163/15685270252772759|jstor=3270470}}
Llinell 361: Llinell 359:
* {{Cite journal |last=Silverberg |first=James |year=1969 |title=Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium |journal=The American Journal of Sociology |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=442–443 |doi=10.1086/224812}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Silverberg |first=James |year=1969 |title=Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium |journal=The American Journal of Sociology |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=442–443 |doi=10.1086/224812}}
* {{cite book|first=D. N.|last=Shukla|year=1993|title=Vastu-Sastra: Hindu Science of Architecture|publisher=Munshiram Manoharial Publishers|isbn=978-81-215-0611-3}}
* {{cite book|first=D. N.|last=Shukla|year=1993|title=Vastu-Sastra: Hindu Science of Architecture|publisher=Munshiram Manoharial Publishers|isbn=978-81-215-0611-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |year=2008 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |author-link=Upinder Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220004242/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |year=2008 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |author-link=Upinder Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC |access-date=2 Gorffennaf 2015 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220004242/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Singh |first=Upinder |year=2009 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|author-link=Upinder Singh}}
* {{Citation |last=Singh |first=Upinder |year=2009 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|author-link=Upinder Singh}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sjoberg |first=Andree F. |year=1990 |title=The Dravidian Contribution to the Development of Indian Civilization: A Call for a Reassessment |journal=Comparative Civilizations Review |volume=23 |issue=23 |pages=40–74 |id=Article 4 |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1188&context=ccr |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174248/https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1188&context=ccr |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sjoberg |first=Andree F. |year=1990 |title=The Dravidian Contribution to the Development of Indian Civilization: A Call for a Reassessment |journal=Comparative Civilizations Review |volume=23 |issue=23 |pages=40–74 |id=Article 4 |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1188&context=ccr |access-date=29 December 2020 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174248/https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1188&context=ccr |url-status=live }}
Llinell 370: Llinell 368:
* {{Cite book | editor-last=Sontheimer | editor-first=Sunther-Dietz | title = Hinduism Reconsidered |year=1989 | publisher = Manohar |isbn=8173041989 }}
* {{Cite book | editor-last=Sontheimer | editor-first=Sunther-Dietz | title = Hinduism Reconsidered |year=1989 | publisher = Manohar |isbn=8173041989 }}
* {{Citation |last=Sponsel |first=Leslie Elmer |title=Spiritual Ecology: A Quiet Revolution |year=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO}}
* {{Citation |last=Sponsel |first=Leslie Elmer |title=Spiritual Ecology: A Quiet Revolution |year=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |url=http://www.investigacioneshistoricaseuroasiaticas-ihea.com/files/HISTORYINDIA-BurtonStein.pdf |title=A History of India, Second Edition |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |author-link=Burton Stein |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140114070555/http://www.investigacioneshistoricaseuroasiaticas-ihea.com/files/HISTORYINDIA-BurtonStein.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |url=http://www.investigacioneshistoricaseuroasiaticas-ihea.com/files/HISTORYINDIA-BurtonStein.pdf |title=A History of India, Second Edition |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |author-link=Burton Stein |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140114070555/http://www.investigacioneshistoricaseuroasiaticas-ihea.com/files/HISTORYINDIA-BurtonStein.pdf |archive-date=14 Ionawr 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}
* {{cite book|surname=Stuart-Fox |given=David J. |year=2002 |title=Pura Besakih: Temple, religion and society in Bali |place=Leiden |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=9789067181464}}
* {{cite book|surname=Stuart-Fox |given=David J. |year=2002 |title=Pura Besakih: Temple, religion and society in Bali |place=Leiden |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=9789067181464}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sweetman |first=Will |date=2004 |title=The prehistory of Orientalism: Colonialism and the Textual Basis for Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg's Account of Hinduism |url=http://www.nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf |journal=New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=12–38 |archive-date=7 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207044659/http://nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Sweetman |first=Will |date=2004 |title=The prehistory of Orientalism: Colonialism and the Textual Basis for Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg's Account of Hinduism |url=http://www.nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf |journal=New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=12–38 |archive-date=7 Chwefror 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207044659/http://nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_3.pdf |url-status=dead}}
<!-- T -->
<!-- T -->
* {{Cite book|surname=Tattwananda |given=Swami |title=Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship |place=Calcutta |publisher=Nirmalendra Bikash Sen Gupta |year=n.d. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.128453}}
* {{Cite book|surname=Tattwananda |given=Swami |title=Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship |place=Calcutta |publisher=Nirmalendra Bikash Sen Gupta |year=n.d. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.128453}}
Llinell 379: Llinell 377:
* {{Cite book |last=Tiwari |first=Shiv Kumar |title=Tribal Roots Of Hinduism |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=2002}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tiwari |first=Shiv Kumar |title=Tribal Roots Of Hinduism |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=2002}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Toropov |first1=Brandon |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions |last2=Buckles |first2=Luke |publisher=Penguin |year=2011}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Toropov |first1=Brandon |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions |last2=Buckles |first2=Luke |publisher=Penguin |year=2011}}
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Bryan S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDwRcguxbGwC |title=For Weber: Essays on the Sociology of Fate |year=1996a |isbn=978-0-8039-7634-4 |author-link=Bryan S. Turner (sociologist) |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174249/https://books.google.com/books?id=YDwRcguxbGwC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Bryan S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDwRcguxbGwC |title=For Weber: Essays on the Sociology of Fate |year=1996a |isbn=978-0-8039-7634-4 |author-link=Bryan S. Turner (sociologist) |access-date=27 Hydref 2015 |archive-date=29 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174249/https://books.google.com/books?id=YDwRcguxbGwC |url-status=live }}
<!-- V -->
<!-- V -->
* {{cite book|last=Viswanathan|first=G|editor1-first=Gavin|editor1-last=Flood|year=2003|chapter=Colonialism and the Construction of Hinduism|doi=10.1002/9780470998694.ch2|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|pages=23–44|isbn=9780470998694}}
* {{cite book|last=Viswanathan|first=G|editor1-first=Gavin|editor1-last=Flood|year=2003|chapter=Colonialism and the Construction of Hinduism|doi=10.1002/9780470998694.ch2|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|pages=23–44|isbn=9780470998694}}
Llinell 391: Llinell 389:
* {{cite journal |last=Widgery |first=Alban G. |title=The Principles of Hindu Ethics |journal=International Journal of Ethics |volume=40 |issue=2 |date=Jan 1930 |pages=232–245 |doi=10.1086/intejethi.40.2.2377977 |jstor=2377977|s2cid=170183611 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Widgery |first=Alban G. |title=The Principles of Hindu Ethics |journal=International Journal of Ethics |volume=40 |issue=2 |date=Jan 1930 |pages=232–245 |doi=10.1086/intejethi.40.2.2377977 |jstor=2377977|s2cid=170183611 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wink |first=Andre |title=Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Volume 1 |publisher=Brill Academic |year=1991 |isbn=978-90-04-09509-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wink |first=Andre |title=Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Volume 1 |publisher=Brill Academic |year=1991 |isbn=978-90-04-09509-0}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |year=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |publisher=Praeger |volume=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611142934/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2007 |number=4 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |year=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |publisher=Praeger |volume=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611142934/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |archive-date=11 Mehefin 2007 |number=4 }}
<!-- Z -->
<!-- Z -->
* {{Cite book|last=Zimmer|first=Heinrich|title=Philosophies of India|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1951|author-link=Heinrich Zimmer}}
* {{Cite book|last=Zimmer|first=Heinrich|title=Philosophies of India|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1951|author-link=Heinrich Zimmer}}
Llinell 427: Llinell 425:


{{Rheoli awdurdod}}
{{Rheoli awdurdod}}

[[Categori:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images]]
[[Categori:Amldduwiaeth]]
[[Categori:Amldduwiaeth]]
[[Categori:Undduwiaeth]]
[[Categori:Undduwiaeth]]

Fersiwn yn ôl 06:58, 15 Ionawr 2022

Hindŵaeth
Defod briodasol
Enghraifft o'r canlynolcrefydd, grwp crefyddol mawr, ffordd o fyw, diwylliant, exonym Edit this on Wikidata
Mathcrefyddau India, crefydd y werin, crefydd y wladwriaeth Edit this on Wikidata
Dechrau/SefydluUnknown Edit this on Wikidata
Rhagflaenwyd ganhistorical Vedic religion Edit this on Wikidata
Olynwyd ganBwdhaeth, Jainiaeth, Siciaeth Edit this on Wikidata
Lleoliadledled y byd Edit this on Wikidata
Yn cynnwysenwad Hindwaidd Edit this on Wikidata
Enw brodorolहिन्दूधर्मः Edit this on Wikidata
Tudalen Comin Ffeiliau perthnasol ar Gomin Wicimedia

Hindŵaeth yw crefydd gynhenid isgyfandir India a phrif grefydd India ei hun heddiw. Mae’n un o'r crefyddau hynaf a gychwynodd ryw bedair mil o flynyddoedd yn ôl.

Bydd rhai o ddilynwyr y grefydd hon yn addoli un duw yn unig, ond bydd eraill yn addoli llawer. Y duw pwysicaf oll yw Brahman, ond nid yw’n bosibl i neb ei addoli yn uniongyrchol; mae’n rhaid agosáu ato drwy gyfrwng duwiau eraill megis Brahma y Creawdwr, Sifa y Dinistriwr neu Fisnw y Ceidwad sydd hefyd yn dduw cariad.

Cred yr Hindŵ fod gan ddyn atman oddi wrth Brahman, sef yr enaid tragwyddol sydd yn llifo drwy bob math o fywyd, boed anifail neu lysieuyn. Gall yr enaid hwn gael ei aileni mewn gwahanol ffurfiau dro ar ôl tro yn unol â chyfundrefn o wobrwyo a chosbi a elwir karma.

Os bu bywyd dyn yn ddrwg, mae'n debyg mai fel planhigyn neu anifail y bydd ei enaid yn ailymddangos, a bydd yn rhaid i’r enaid wneud hyn sawl gwaith cyn cael trigo mewn corff dynol eilwaith. Os bu bywyd dyn yn un da a rhinweddol, bydd ei enaid yn symud yn agosach at yr hapusrwydd a ddaw o fod gyda Brahman.

Maent hefyd yn addoli mewn Mandir, sef math o deml.

Yn fyr

Mae Hindŵaeth hefyd yn dharma, sef ffordd o fyw.[a] Hi yw trydydd crefydd fwyaf y byd, gyda dros 1.2 biliwn o ddilynwyr, neu 15–16% o'r boblogaeth fyd-eang, a elwir yn Hindwiaid. Mewn cymhariaeth, yr ail fwyaf yw Islam gydag 1.9 biliwn o ddilynwyr a Christnogaeth sydd a 2.4 biliwn o aelodau.

Dathlu 'Holi' yn Nheml Sri Radha Krishna Utah, Utah, UDA (2013)

Mae'r gair Hindŵ yn tarddu o'r gair Sansgrit Sindhu[1][2] sef yr Afon Indus.[b] Tra bod Hindŵaeth wedi cael ei alw'n grefydd hyna'r byd,[note 4] mae llawer o ymarferwyr yn cyfeirio at eu crefydd fel Sanātana Dharma (Sansgrit: सनातन धर्म; y Dharma Tragwyddol), sy'n cyfeirio at y syniad bod ei darddiad y tu hwnt i hanes dyn, fel sy'n cael ei ddatgan yn y testunau Hindŵaidd.[c] Hunan-ddynodiad arall, er yn llai ffit,[9] yw Vaidika dharma, y 'dharma sy'n gysylltiedig â'r Veda.'[10]

Mae Hindŵaeth yn system o feddwl amrywiol iawn, gydag athroniaethau a chysyniadau sy'n gyffredin i lawer o wledydd, defodau, systemau cosmolegol, safleoedd pererindod, ffynonellau testunol, metaffiseg, mytholeg, yajna Vedig, ioga, defodau agamic, ac adeiladu temlau, ymhlith pynciau eraill.[11] Ymhlith y themâu amlwg yng nghredoau Hindŵaidd mae pedwar Puruṣārthas, nodau neu nodau priodol bywyd dynol; sef, dharma (moeseg / dyletswyddau), artha (ffyniant / gwaith), kama (dymuniadau / nwydau) a moksha (rhyddhad / rhyddid rhag y nwydau a chylch marwolaeth ac aileni),[12][13] yn ogystal â karma (gweithredu, bwriad a chanlyniadau) a saṃsāra (cylch marwolaeth ac aileni).[14][15] Mae Hindŵaeth yn pwysleisio dyletswyddau tragwyddol, fel gonestrwydd, ymatal rhag anafu bodau byw (Ahiṃsā), amynedd, goddefgarwch, hunan-ataliaeth, rhinwedd a thosturi ac eraill.[16] Mae arferion Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys defodau fel puja (addoli) a datganiadau, japa, myfyrdod (dhyāna), defodau newid byd (rites of passage) sy'n deulu-ganolog, gwyliau blynyddol, ac ambell bererindod. Ynghyd ag arferion amrywiol fel ioga, mae rhai Hindwiaid yn gadael eu byd cymdeithasol a'u heiddo materol ac yn cymryd rhan mewn Sannyasa (mynachaeth) gydol oes er mwyn cyflawni moksha.[17]

Mae testunau Hindŵaidd yn cael eu dosbarthu i ddau grwp: Śruti ("clywed") a Smṛti ("cofio"), a'u prif ysgrythurau yw'r Veda, yr Upanishads, y Purānas, y Mahābhārata, y Rāmāyana, a'r Āgamas.[14][18] Ceir chwe ysgol athroniaeth Hindŵ a elwir yn āstika, sy'n cydnabod awdurdod y Vedas, sef Sānkhya, Ioga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā a Vedanta .[19][20][21] Mae'r gronoleg Puranig yn cyflwyno achau o filoedd o flynyddoedd, gan ddechrau gyda'r rishis Vedig, ond mae ysgolheigion yn ystyried Hindŵaeth fel ymasiad[note 5] neu synthesis[22][note 6] o orthopraxy Brahmanaidd<nowiki> gyda diwylliannau Indiaidd amrywiol,[23][note 7] â gwreiddiau amrywiol [24][note 8] a dim sylfaenydd penodol.[25] Daeth y synthesis Hindŵaidd hwn i'r amlwg ar ôl y cyfnod Vedic, rhwng c. 500[26] –200[27] BCE ac c. 300 CE,[26] yng nghyfnod yr Ail Drefoli a chyfnod clasurol cynnar Hindŵaeth, pan gyfansoddwyd yr Epics a'r Purānas cyntaf.[26][27] Ffynnodd yn y cyfnod canoloesol, gyda dirywiad Bwdhaeth yn India.[28]

Ar hyn o bryd, y pedwar enwad mwyaf o fewn Hindŵaeth yw Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism a Smartism.[29][30] Mae ffynonellau awdurdod a gwirioneddau tragwyddol yn y testunau Hindŵaidd yn chwarae rhan bwysig, ond ceir traddodiad Hindŵaidd cryf hefyd o gwestiynu awdurdod er mwyn dyfnhau dealltwriaeth o'r gwirioneddau hyn a datblygu'r traddodiad ymhellach.[31] Hindŵaeth yw'r ffydd a broffesir fwyaf eang yn India, Nepal a Mauritius. Mae nifer sylweddol o gymunedau Hindŵaidd i'w cael yn Ne-ddwyrain Asia gan gynnwys yn Bali, Indonesia,[32] y Caribî, Gogledd America, Ewrop, Oceania, Affrica, a rhanbarthau eraill .[33]

Diffiniadau

Mae Hindŵaeth yn cynnwys amrywiaeth o syniadau ar ysbrydolrwydd a thraddodiadau, ond nid oes ganddo drefn eglwysig, dim awdurdod crefyddol diamheuol, dim corff llywodraethu, dim proffwyd/i nac unrhyw lyfr sanctaidd penodol. Gall Hindwiaid ddewis bod yn amldduwiol, pantheistig, panentheistig, pandeistig, henotheistig, monotheistig, monistig, agnostig, anffyddiol neu ddyneiddiol.[34][35][36] Yn ôl Doniger, "mae syniadau am holl brif faterion ffydd a ffordd o fyw - llysieuaeth, di-drais, cred mewn aileni, hyd yn oed cast - yn destunau dadl, ac nid dogma."[37]

Oherwydd yr ystod eang o draddodiadau a syniadau a gwmpesir gan y term Hindŵaeth, mae'n anodd dod o hyd i ddiffiniad cynhwysfawr.[1] Mae'r grefydd "yn gwadu ein hawydd i'w diffinio a'i chategoreiddio".[38] Diffiniwyd Hindŵaeth yn amrywiol fel crefydd, fel traddodiad crefyddol, ac fel set o gredoau crefyddol, ac fel "ffordd o fyw".[39][note 1] O safbwynt geirfa'r Gorllewin, cyfeirir at Hindŵaeth fel 'crefydd', ond yn India, caiff ei diffionio'n amlach fel dharma, sy'n ehangach na chrefydd y Gorllewin.[40]

Mae'r astudiaeth o India, ei diwylliannau a'i chrefyddau, a'r diffiniad o "Hindŵaeth", wedi cael eu llunio gan fuddiannau gwladychiaeth a chan syniadau Gorllewinol am grefydd.[41][42] Ers y 1990au, mae'r dylanwadau hyn wedi bod yn destun dadl ymhlith ysgolheigion Hindŵaidd,[41][43] ac maent hefyd wedi beirniadu gogwydd y gorllewin ar India.[44][45]

Diffiniadau cyfreithiol

Diffinir Hindŵaeth yng Nghyfraith India fel us sy'n: "Derbyn y Veda gyda pharch; cydnabyddiaeth o'r ffaith bod y modd neu'r ffyrdd i Moksha yn amrywiol; a sylweddoliad o'r gwir bod nifer y duwiau i'w haddoli yn fawr".[46][37]

Barn ysgolheigaidd

Bathwyd y term Hindŵaeth yn ethnograffeg y Gorllewin yn y 18g,[47][48][note 9] ac mae'n cyfeirio at ymasiad[note 5] neu synthesis[note 6][49][50] amrywiol ddiwylliannau a thraddodiadau Indiaidd,[23][note 7] gyda gwreiddiau amrywiol[24][note 8] a dim sylfaenydd.[25] Daeth y synthesis Hindŵaidd hwn i'r amlwg ar ôl y cyfnod Vedig, rhwng c. 500[26] –200[27] CC a c. 300 OC,[26] yng nghyfnod yr Ail Drefoli a chyfnod clasurol cynnar Hindŵaeth, pan gyfansoddwyd yr Epics a'r Puranas cyntaf.[26][27] Ffynnodd yn y cyfnod canoloesol, gyda dirywiad Bwdhaeth yn India.[28] Mae goddefgarwch Hindŵaeth i amrywiadau mewn cred a'i ystod eang o draddodiadau yn ei gwneud hi'n anodd ei ddiffinio fel crefydd yn ôl diffiniadau traddodiadol y gorllewin.[51]

Amrywiaeth ac undod

Amrywiaeth

Ganesha yw un o'r duwiau mwyaf adnabyddus a mwyaf addoledig yn y pantheon Hindŵaidd.

Mae credoau Hindŵaidd yn helaeth ac yn amrywiol iawn, ac felly cyfeirir at Hindŵaeth yn aml fel teulu o grefyddau yn hytrach nag un grefydd.[web 3] O fewn pob crefydd yn y teulu hwn o grefyddau, mae yna wahanol ddiwinyddiaeth, arferion, a thestunau cysegredig.[web 4][52][53][54][web 5] Nid oes gan Hindŵaeth "system gred unedig wedi'i hamgodio mewn datganiad o ffydd neu gredo",[55] ond yn hytrach mae'n derm ymbarél sy'n cynnwys lluosogrwydd ffenomenau crefyddol India.[56][57] Yn ôl Goruchaf Lys India,

Yn wahanol i grefyddau eraill yn y Byd, nid yw'r grefydd Hindŵaidd yn hawlio un Proffwyd, nid yw'n addoli unrhyw un Duw, nid yw'n credu mewn unrhyw un cysyniad athronyddol ac nid yw'n dilyn unrhyw un ddefod neu berfformiad/au crefyddol; mewn gwirionedd, nid yw'n bodloni nodweddion traddodiadol crefydd na chredo. Mae'n ffordd o fyw a dim byd mwy ".[58]

Undod

Er gwaethaf y gwahaniaethau, mae yna ymdeimlad o undod hefyd.[57] Mae'r rhan fwyaf o draddodiadau Hindŵaidd yn parchu corff o lenyddiaeth grefyddol neu gysegredig, y Vedas,[59] er bod eithriadau.[55] Mae'r testunau hyn yn ein hatgoffa o'r dreftadaeth ddiwylliannol hynafol ac maent yn destun balchder i Hindwiaid,[60][61] gyda Louis Renou yn nodi "hyd yn oed yn y parthau mwyaf uniongred, mae'r parch i'r Vedas yn amlwg".[60][57]

Credoau

Cerflun ar banel wal yn nheml Hoysaleswara yn Halebidu, yn cynrychioli'r Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva a Vishnu

Mae themâu amlwg yng nghredoau Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys (ond heb fod yn gyfyngedig i) Dharma (moeseg / dyletswyddau), saṃsāra (cylch parhaus ymglymiad mewn nwydau a'r enedigaeth, bywyd, marwolaeth ac aileni sy'n deillio o hynny), Karma (gweithredu, bwriad, a chanlyniadau ), moksha (rhyddhad rhag ymlyniad a saṃsāra), a'r amrywiol iogas (llwybrau neu arferion). [15]

Purusharthas

Mae Purusharthas yn cyfeirio at amcanion bywyd dynol. Mae meddwl Clasurol Hindŵaidd yn derbyn pedwar nod neu nod cywir ym mywyd dynol, a elwir yn Puruṣārthas:[12][62]

  • Dharma ,
  • Artha ,
  • Kama, a
  • Moksha .

Dharma (cyfiawnder, moeseg)

Ystyrir Dharma fel y nod mwyaf blaenllaw mewn Hindŵaeth.[63] Mae'r cysyniad o dharma yn cynnwys ymddygiadau yr ystyrir eu bod yn unol ag rta, y drefn sy'n gwneud bywyd a bydysawd yn bosibl, ac mae'n cynnwys dyletswyddau, hawliau, deddfau, ymddygiad, rhinweddau a "ffordd gywir o fyw".[64] Mae dharma Hindŵaidd yn cynnwys dyletswyddau crefyddol, hawliau moesol a dyletswyddau pob unigolyn, ynghyd ag ymddygiadau sy'n galluogi trefn gymdeithasol, ymddygiad cywir, a rhai rhinweddol.[64] Dharma, yn ôl Van Buitenen,[65] yw'r hyn y mae'n rhaid i bob bod dynol presennol ei dderbyn a'i barchu i gynnal cytgord a threfn yn y byd.[65]

Artha (bywoliaeth, cyfoeth)

Artha yw'r ymgais rhinweddol i gael cyfoeth materol, bywoliaeth, rhwymedigaethau a ffyniant economaidd. Mae'n cynnwys bywyd gwleidyddol, diplomyddiaeth a lles materol. Mae'r cysyniad artha yn cynnwys yr holl "ffyrdd o fyw", gweithgareddau ac adnoddau sy'n galluogi person i fod mewn cyflwr arbennig: cyfoeth, gyrfa a diogelwch ariannol.[66] Mae mynd ar drywydd artha yn iawn yn cael ei ystyried yn nod pwysig ym mywyd dynol mewn Hindŵaeth.[67][68]

Kāma (pleser y synhwyrau)

Mae Kāma (Sansgrit, Pali: काम) yn golygu awydd, awch, dymuniad, angerdd, hiraeth, pleser y synhwyrau, mwynhad esthetig bywyd, hoffter, neu gariad, gyda neu heb yr ochr rhywiol.[69] Mewn Hindŵaeth, mae kama yn cael ei ystyried yn nod hanfodol ac iach ym mywyd dynol cyn belled nad yw'r person yn aberthu dharma, artha a moksha.[70]

Mokṣa (rhyddhad, rhyddid rhag saṃsāra)

Moksha (Sansgrit: मोक्ष; Mokṣa) neu mukti (Sansgrit: मुक्ति) yw'r nod eithaf, pwysicaf yn Hindŵaeth. Ar un ystyr, mae moksha yn gysyniad sy'n gysylltiedig â rhyddhau rhag tristwch, dioddefaint a saṃsāra (cylch aileni genedigaeth). Gelwir rhyddhau o'r cylch hwn, ar ôl bywyd, yn enwedig yn ysgolion damcaniaethol Hindŵaeth yn moksha.[65][71][72] Ystyrir marwolaeth yn ddibwys mewn perthynas â'r Hunan cosmig.[73]

Karma a saṃsāra

Mae Karma yn cyfieithu'n llythrennol fel gwaith, neu weithred,[74] ac mae hefyd yn cyfeirio at theori Vedig o "gyfraith foesol achos ac effaith".[75][76] Mae'r theori yn gyfuniad o (1) achosiaeth a all fod yn foesegol neu'n an-foesegol; (2) moeseg, hynny yw gweithredoedd da neu ddrwg sy'n arwain at ganlyniadau; a (3) aileni.[77] Dehonglir theori Karma fel un sy'n egluro amgylchiadau presennol unigolyn gan gyfeirio at ei weithredoedd yn y gorffennol. Gall y gweithredoedd hyn a'u canlyniadau fod ym mywyd cyfredol unigolyn, neu, yn ôl rhai ysgolion Hindŵaidd, ym mywydau'r gorffennol.[77][78] Gelwir y cylch hwn o eni, bywyd, marwolaeth ac aileni yn saṃsāra. Credir bod rhyddhau o saṃsāra trwy moksha yn sicrhau hapusrwydd a heddwch parhaol.[79][80] Mae ysgrythurau Hindŵaidd yn dysgu bod y dyfodol yn swyddogaeth o ymdrech ddynol gyfredol sy'n deillio o ewyllys rydd a gweithredoedd dynol yn y gorffennol sy'n gosod yr amgylchiadau.[81]

Y cysyniad o Dduw

Mae Hindŵaeth yn system amrywiol o feddwl gydag amrywiaeth eang o gredoau;[34][82][web 6] mae ei gysyniad o Dduw yn gymhleth ac yn dibynnu ar bob unigolyn a'r traddodiad a'r athroniaeth a ddilynir. Cyfeirir ato weithiau fel henotheistig (h.y., yn ymwneud ag ymroddiad i dduw sengl wrth dderbyn bodolaeth eraill), ond mae unrhyw derm o'r fath yn llawer rhy syml.[11][83]

Mae'r Nasadiya Sukta (Emyn y Creu) o'r Rig Veda yn un o'r testunau cynharaf [55] sy'n "dangos ymdeimlad o ddyfalu metaffisegol" am yr hyn a greodd y bydysawd, y cysyniad o dduw (iau) Yr Un, ac a yw hyd yn oed Yr Un yn gwybod sut y daeth y bydysawd i fodolaeth.[84] Mae'r Rig Veda yn canmol nifer o dduwdodau (neu fân dduwiau), dim un ohonyn nhw'n uwchraddol nac yn israddol, mewn modd henotheistig.[85] Mae'r emynau yn cyfeirio dro ar ôl tro at Un Gwirionedd ac un Realaeth Eithaf. Dehonglwyd "Un Gwirionedd" o fewn llenyddiaeth Vedig, yn ysgolheictod yr oes fodern, fel undduwiaeth, monistiaeth, yn ogystal ag Egwyddorion Cudd y tu ôl i ddigwyddiadau a phrosesau mawr natur.[86]

xxx Mae Hindwiaid yn credu bod gan bob creadur byw 'Yr Hunan' (tebyg i 'Enaid'). Gelwir y gwir "Hunan" hwn o bob person yn ātman . Credir bod yr Hunan yn dragwyddol.[87] Yn ôl diwinyddiaeth monistig / pantheistig (di-ddeuol) Hindŵaidd, mae'r Atman hwn yn wahanol i Brahman, yr ysbryd goruchaf neu'r Realiti Ultimate.[88] Nod bywyd, yn ôl ysgol Advaita, yw sylweddoli bod Hunan rhywun yn union yr un fath â Hunan y goruchaf, bod yr Hunan goruchaf yn bresennol ym mhopeth a phawb, mae'r holl fywyd yn rhyng-gysylltiedig ac mae undod ym mhob bywyd.[89][90][91] Mae ysgolion deuistig (Dvaita a Bhakti) yn dehongli Brahman fel y Bod Goruchaf sydd ar wahân i'r Hunan unigol.[92] Maent yn addoli'r Bod Goruchaf fel Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, neu Shakti, yn dibynnu ar y sect. Gelwir Duw yn Ishvara, Bhagavan, Parameshwara, Deva neu Devi, ac mae gan y termau hyn wahanol ystyron mewn gwahanol ysgolion Hindŵaeth.[93][94][95]

Prif draddodiadau

Enwadau

Panchayatana Ganesha-ganolog ("pum duwdod", o'r traddodiad Smarta): Ganesha (canol) gyda Shiva (chwith uchaf), Parvati (dde uchaf), Vishnu (chwith isaf) a Surya (dde isaf). Mae gan yr holl dduwdodau hyn sectau ar wahân wedi'u cysegru iddynt hefyd.

Nid oes gan Hindŵaeth awdurdod athrawiaethol canolog ac nid yw llawer o Hindwiaid sy'n ymarfer yn honni eu bod yn perthyn i unrhyw enwad neu draddodiad penodol.[96] Fodd bynnag, defnyddir pedwar enwad mawr mewn astudiaethau ysgolheigaidd: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism a Smartism.[29][97][98][99] Mae'r enwadau hyn yn wahanol i'w gilydd, yn bennaf o ran y duwdod canolog a addolir, y traddodiadau a'r rhagolwg [100] Mae enwadau Hindŵaeth, dywed Lipner, yn wahanol i'r rhai a geir ym mhrif grefyddau'r byd, oherwydd bod enwadau Hindŵaidd yn niwlog gydag unigolion yn ymarfer mwy nag un, ac mae'n awgrymu'r term "polyganolog Hindŵaidd". [101]

Arferion

Defodau

Priodas yw'r ddefod bersonol fwyaf helaeth y mae oedolyn Hindŵaidd yn ymgymryd â hi yn ei fywyd. Mae priodas Hindŵaidd nodweddiadol yn cael ei gweinyddu cyn defod tân Vedig (gw. y llun).[67]

Mae'r rhan fwyaf o Hindwiaid yn cynnal defodau crefyddol gartref.[102] Mae'r defodau'n amrywio'n fawr ymhlith ardaloedd, pentrefi ac unigolion. Nid ydyn nhw'n orfodol mewn Hindŵaeth. Dewis unigolyn yw natur a lle defodau. Mae rhai Hindwiaid defosiynol yn perfformio defodau dyddiol fel addoli ar doriad y wawr ar ôl cael bath (fel arfer mewn cysegr teulu, ac yn nodweddiadol mae'n cynnwys goleuo lamp ac yn cynnig bwydydd o flaen delweddau o'r duwiau), llefaru o sgriptiau crefyddol, canu bhajans (emynau defosiynol), ioga, myfyrdod, llafarganu mantras ac eraill.[103]

Gwelir defodau Vedig gyda thân (yajna) a llafarganu emynau Vedig ar achlysuron arbennig, fel priodasau Hindŵaidd.[104] Mae digwyddiadau mawr eraill bywyd, fel defodau ar ôl marwolaeth, yn cynnwys yajña a llafarganu mantras Vedig.[web 7]

Mae geiriau'r mantras yn "sanctaidd." [105][105] Wrth eu defnyddio mewn defodau Vedig maent yn dod yn synau hudol, "yn ddull i gyrraedd y nod."Gwall cyfeirio: Tag <ref> annilys; rhaid i dagiau 'ref' heb enw iddynt gynnwys testun Yn y persbectif Brahmanaidd, mae gan y synau eu hystyr eu hunain, ystyrir mantras yn "rythmau cyntefig cyntaf y greadigaeth", cyn y ffurfiau y maent yn cyfeirio atynt.[105] Trwy eu llafarganu mae'r cosmos yn cael ei adfywio, "trwy fywiogi a maethu ffurfiau'r greadigaeth yn eu sylfaen. Cyn belled â bod purdeb y synau yn cael ei gadw, bydd adrodd y mantras yn effeithiol, ni waeth a yw bodau dynol yn deall eu hystyr disylwedd."[105][106]

Gwyliau

Mae gŵyl y goleuadau, Diwali, yn cael ei dathlu gan Hindwiaid ledled y byd.
Hindwiaid yn Ghana yn dathlu Ganesh Chaturti

Mae gwyliau Hindŵaidd (Sansgrit: Utsava ; yn llythrennol: "i godi'n uwch") yn seremonïau sy'n plethu bywyd unigol a chymdeithasol i dharma.[107][108] Mae gan Hindŵaeth lawer o wyliau trwy gydol y flwyddyn, lle mae'r dyddiadau'n cael eu gosod gan y calendr Hindŵaidd lunisolar, ac mae llawer ohonynt yn cyd-daro naill ai â'r lleuad lawn (Holi) neu'r lleuad newydd (Diwali), yn aml gyda newidiadau tymhorol.[109] Dim ond yn rhanbarthol y mae rhai gwyliau i'w cael ac maen nhw'n dathlu traddodiadau lleol, tra bod ambell un fel Holi a Diwali yn draws-Hindŵaidd.[109][110] Mae'r gwyliau fel arfer yn dathlu digwyddiadau Hindŵaidd, gan gysylltu themâu ysbrydol a dathlu agweddau ar berthnasoedd dynol fel y berthynas agos Chwaer-Frawd dros ŵyl Raksha Bandhan (neu Bhai Dooj).[108][111] Mae'r un ŵyl weithiau'n nodi gwahanol straeon yn dibynnu ar yr enwad Hindŵaidd, ac mae'r dathliadau'n ymgorffori themâu rhanbarthol, amaethyddiaeth draddodiadol, celfyddydau lleol, cyfarfyddiadau teuluol, defodau a gwleddoedd Puja.[107][112]

Pererindota

Mae llawer o ymlynwyr yn ymgymryd â phererindodau, sydd yn hanesyddol wedi bod yn rhan bwysig o Hindŵaeth ac yn parhau felly heddiw.[113] Ceir safleoedd pererindota yn Tirtha, Kshetra, Gopitha neu Mahalaya.[114][115] Enw'r broses neu'r siwrnai sy'n gysylltiedig â Tirtha yw Tirtha-yatra.[116] Yn ôl y testun Hindŵaidd Skanda Purana, mae tri math i Tirtha: mae Jangam Tirtha i le y gellir ei symud o sadhu, rishi, guru. Mae Sthawar Tirtha i le na ellir ei symud, fel Benaras, Haridwar, Mynydd Kailash, afonydd sanctaidd; tra bod Manas Tirtha i le o feddwl, o wirionedd, elusen, amynedd, tosturi, neu'r Hunan.[117][118] Mae Tīrtha-yatra, yn unrhyw beth sydd â gwerth salvific i Hindw, ac mae'n cynnwys safleoedd pererindod fel mynyddoedd neu goedwigoedd neu lan y môr neu afonydd neu byllau, yn ogystal â rhinweddau, gweithredoedd, astudiaethau neu gyflwr meddwl.[115][11]

Diwylliant

Mae'r term " diwylliant Hindŵaidd " yn cyfeirio at agweddau cymedrig ar ddiwylliant sy'n ymwneud â'r grefydd, fel gwyliau a chodau gwisg a ddilynir gan yr Hindwiaid y gellir eu hysbrydoli'n bennaf o ddiwylliant India a De-ddwyrain Asia. Er y bu cymysgedd o ddiwylliant gwahanol mewn Hindŵaeth, mae hefyd wedi dylanwadu ar ddiwylliannau llawer o genhedloedd, yn bennaf y rhan o India Fwyaf.

Darllen pellach

Gwyddoniaduron
  • Dalal, Roshen (2010b). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. New Delhi: Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
  • Jacobsen, Knut A.; et al., gol. (2009–2015). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism. 1–6. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004271289.
    • Vol. 1: Regions, Pilgrimage, Deities (2009).
    • Vol. 2: Sacred Languages, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts (2010).
    • Vol. 3: Society, Religious Professionals, Religious Communities, Philosophies (2011).
    • Vol. 4: Historical Perspectives, Poets/Teachers/Saints, Relation to Other Religions and Traditions, Hinduism and Contemporary Issues (2012).
    • Vol. 5: Symbolism, Diaspora, Modern Groups and Teachers (2013).
    • Vol. 6: Indices (2015).
  • Jain, Pankaj; Sherma, Rita; Khanna, Madhu, gol. (2018). Hinduism and Tribal Religions. Encyclopedia of Indian Religions. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_541-1. ISBN 978-94-024-1036-5.
  • Jones, Constance A.; Ryan, James D. (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Encyclopedia of World Religions. J. Gordon Melton, Series Editor. New York: Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9. Archifwyd o'r gwreiddiol ar 2020-04-02.
  • Werner, Karel (1997). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism (arg. Rev.). Surrey: Curzon Press. ISBN 0-7007-1049-3.
Introductory
Hanes
Athroniaeth
Testun

Gweler hefyd

Cyfeiriadau

  1. 1.0 1.1 Flood 1996, t. 6.
  2. Parpola 2015, "Chapter 1".
  3. Siemens & Roodt 2009, t. 546.
  4. Leaf 2014, t. 36.
  5. Knott 1998, tt. 3, 5.
  6. Hatcher 2015, tt. 4–5, 69–71, 150–152.
  7. Bowker 2000.
  8. Harvey 2001, t. xiii.
  9. Smith, Brian K. (1998). "Questioning Authority: Constructions and Deconstructions of Hinduism". International Journal of Hindu Studies 2 (3): 313–339. doi:10.1007/s11407-998-0001-9. JSTOR 20106612.
  10. "View Dictionary". sanskritdictionary.com. Cyrchwyd 2021-11-19.
  11. 11.0 11.1 11.2 Michaels 2004.
  12. 12.0 12.1 Bilimoria 2007; see also Koller 1968.
  13. Flood 1997.
  14. 14.0 14.1 Klostermaier 2007, tt. 46–52, 76–77. Gwall cyfeirio: Tag <ref> annilys; mae'r enw "FOOTNOTEKlostermaier2007" wedi'i ddiffinio droeon gyda chynnwys gwahanol
  15. 15.0 15.1 Brodd 2003.
  16. Dharma, Samanya; Kane, P. V. History of Dharmasastra. 2. tt. 4–5. See also Widgery 1930
  17. Ellinger, Herbert (1996). Hinduism. Bloomsbury Academic. tt. 69–70. ISBN 978-1-56338-161-4.
  18. Zaehner, R. C. (1992). Hindu Scriptures. Penguin Random House. tt. 1–7. ISBN 978-0-679-41078-2.
  19. Clarke, Matthew (2011). Development and Religion: Theology and Practice. Edward Elgar Publishing. t. 28. ISBN 978-0-85793-073-6. Cyrchwyd 11 Chwefror 2015.
  20. Holberg, Dale, gol. (2000). Students' Britannica India. 4. Encyclopædia Britannica India. t. 316. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5.
  21. Nicholson, Andrew (2013). Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History. Columbia University Press. tt. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-231-14987-7.
  22. Samuel 2008, t. 193.
  23. 23.0 23.1 Hiltebeitel 2007; Flood 1996; Lockard 2007
  24. 24.0 24.1 Narayanan 2009.
  25. 25.0 25.1 Fowler 1997.
  26. 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 Hiltebeitel 2007.
  27. 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Larson 2009.
  28. 28.0 28.1 Larson 1995.
  29. 29.0 29.1 Tattwananda n.d..
  30. Lipner 2009.
  31. Frazier, Jessica (2011). The Continuum companion to Hindu studies. London: Continuum. tt. 1–15. ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0.
  32. "Peringatan". sp2010.bps.go.id.
  33. Vertovec, Steven (2013). The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns. Routledge. tt. 1–4, 7–8, 63–64, 87–88, 141–143. ISBN 978-1-136-36705-2.
  34. 34.0 34.1 Lipner 2009 Quote: "[...] one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One Mai be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic,henotheistic, panentheistic ,pandeistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."
  35. Kurtz, Lester, gol. (2008). Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-369503-1.
  36. MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism Error in webarchive template: Check |url= value. Empty., Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man Mai not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
  37. 37.0 37.1 Doniger 2014.
  38. Knott 1998, t. 117.
  39. Sharma 2003.
  40. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, t. 3; Witzel 2003, t. 68
  41. 41.0 41.1 Sweetman 2004.
  42. King 1999.
  43. Sweetman mentions:
  44. Nussbaum 2009.
  45. See Rajiv Malhotra and Being Different for a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia, Invading the Sacred, and Hindu studies.
  46. Derrett, J.; Duncan, M. (1973). Dharmaśāstra and juridical literature. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-01519-6. OCLC 1130636.
  47. Sweetman, Will (2003). Mapping Hinduism: 'Hinduism' and the Study of Indian Religions, 1600–1776. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. tt. 163, 154–168. ISBN 978-3-931479-49-7.
  48. Hinduism is derived from Perian hindu- and the -ism suffix. It is first recorded in 1786, in the generic sense of "polytheism of India".[web 1]
  49. Hiltebeitel 2007, t. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)."
  50. Samuel 2008.
  51. Turner 1996a.
  52. Dasgupta, Surendranath; Banarsidass, Motilall (1992). A history of Indian philosophy (part 1). t. 70.
  53. Chande, M.B. (2000). Indian Philosophy in Modern Times. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. t. 277.
  54. Culp, John (2008-12-04). Panentheism. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/panentheism/. Adalwyd 29 December 2020.
  55. 55.0 55.1 55.2 Flood 1996.
  56. Smith, W. C. (1962). The Meaning and End of Religion. San Francisco: Harper and Row. t. 65. ISBN 978-0-7914-0361-7. Cyrchwyd 27 Hydref 2015.
  57. 57.0 57.1 57.2 Halbfass 1991.
  58. Klostermaier 1994, t. 1.
  59. Nicholson 2010.
  60. 60.0 60.1 Pinkney, Andrea (2014). Turner, Bryan; Salemink, Oscar (gol.). Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia. Routledge. tt. 31–32. ISBN 978-0-415-63503-5.
  61. Haines, Jeffrey (2008). Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics. Routledge. t. 80. ISBN 978-0-415-60029-3.
  62. Flood 1997, t. 11.
  63. Flood, Gavin (1996a). "The meaning and context of the Purusarthas". In Lipner, Julius (gol.). The Fruits of Our Desiring. tt. 16–21. ISBN 978-1-896209-30-2.
  64. 64.0 64.1 "Dharma". The Columbia Encyclopedia (arg. 6th). Columbia University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-0-7876-5015-5.
  65. 65.0 65.1 65.2 Van Buitenen, J. A. B. (April–July 1957). "Dharma and Moksa". Philosophy East and West 7 (1/2): 33–40. doi:10.2307/1396832. JSTOR 1396832. Gwall cyfeirio: Tag <ref> annilys; mae'r enw "vanbuitenen" wedi'i ddiffinio droeon gyda chynnwys gwahanol
  66. Koller 1968.
  67. 67.0 67.1 Lochtefeld 2002a.
  68. Bruce Sullivan (1997), Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0-8108-3327-2, pp. 29–30
  69. Macy, Joanna (1975). "The Dialectics of Desire". Numen 22 (2): 145–60. doi:10.2307/3269765. JSTOR 3269765.
  70. See:
  71. Rinehart 2004.
  72. Long, J. Bruce (1980). "2 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions". In O'Flaherty, Wendy D. (gol.). The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.
  73. Hindu spirituality - Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia. Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana. 1999. t. 1. ISBN 978-88-7652-818-7. Cyrchwyd 29 December 2020.
  74. Apte, Vaman S (1997). The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary (arg. New). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. ISBN 978-81-208-0300-8.
  75. Smith, Huston (1991). The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions. San Francisco: Harper. t. 64. ISBN 978-0-06-250799-0.
  76. Karl Potter (1964), "The Naturalistic Principle of Karma", Philosophy East and West, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Apr. 1964), pp. 39–49
  77. 77.0 77.1 Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0, pp. xi–xxv (Introduction) and 3–37
  78. Karl Potter (1980), in Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions (O'Flaherty, Editor), University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0, pp. 241–267
  79. Radhakrishnan 1996.
  80. Vivekananda, Swami (2005). Jnana Yoga. Kessinger Publishing. tt. 301–302. ISBN 978-1-4254-8288-6. (8th Printing 1993)
  81. Chapple, Christopher Key (1986-01-01). Karma and Creativity. SUNY Press. tt. 60–64. ISBN 978-0-88706-250-6.
  82. Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991). Hinduism, a way of life. Motilal Banarsidass. t. 71. ISBN 978-81-208-0899-7. Archifwyd o'r gwreiddiol ar 13 April 2017. Cyrchwyd 29 December 2020.
  83. Gill, N.S. "Henotheism". About, Inc. Archifwyd o'r gwreiddiol ar 17 Mawrth 2007. Cyrchwyd 5 Gorffennaf 2007.
  84. Flood 1996; Kramer 1986
  85. Muller, Max (1878). Lectures on the Origins and Growth of Religions: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. Longmans Green & Co. tt. 260–271.

    Wilkins, William Joseph (1882). Hindu Mythology: Vedic and Purānic. Calcutta: London Missionary Society. t. 8.
  86. Raghavendrachar, H.N. (1944). "Monism in the Vedas". The Half-yearly Journal of the Mysore University 4 (2): 137–152. http://eprints.uni-mysore.ac.in/15675/1/12MONISMINTHEVEDAS.pdf.

    Werner, K. (1982). "Men, gods and powers in the Vedic outlook". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland 114 (1): 14–24. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00158575.

    Coward, H. (1995). "The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas". Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies 8 (1): 45–47. doi:10.7825/2164-6279.1116. "There is little doubt that the theo-monistic category is an appropriate one for viewing a wide variety of experiences in the Hindu tradition"
  87. Monier-Williams 1974.
  88. Bhaskarananda 1994
  89. Vivekananda 1987.
  90. John Koller (2012), Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion (Editors: Chad Meister, Paul Copan), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-78294-4, pp. 99–107
  91. Lance Nelson (1996), "Living liberation in Shankara and classical Advaita", in Living Liberation in Hindu Thought (Editors: Andrew O. Fort, Patricia Y. Mumme), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2706-4, pages 38–39, 59 (footnote 105)
  92. R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, ISBN 978-81-8069-595-7, pages 345–347
  93. Eliade 2009.
  94. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967.
  95. Monier-Williams 2001.
  96. Werner 2005, tt. 13, 45.
  97. Nath 2001.
  98. Flood 1996, tt. 113, 134, 155–161, 167–168.
  99. (Espín & Nickoloff 2007, pp. 562–563)
  100. SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti – the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, ISBN 978-3-643-50130-1, pp. 35–36
  101. Lipner 2009, tt. 371–375.
  102. Muesse 2011. "rituals daily prescribe routine"
  103. Heitzman & Worden 1996, tt. 145–146.
  104. Sharma, A (1985). "Marriage in the Hindu religious tradition". Journal of Ecumenical Studies 22 (1): 69–80.
  105. 105.0 105.1 105.2 105.3 Holdrege 1996.
  106. Coward 2008: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."
  107. 107.0 107.1 Robinson, Sandra (2007). Cush, Denise (gol.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. tt. 908–912. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0.
  108. 108.0 108.1 Yust, Karen-Marie (2005). "Sacred Celebrations". Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality. Rowman & Littlefield. t. 234. ISBN 978-0-7425-4463-5. See also Chapter 18.
  109. 109.0 109.1 Robinson, Sandra (2007). Cush, Denise (gol.). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. t. 907. ISBN 978-0-7007-1267-0.
  110. Foulston, Lynn; Abbott, Stuart (2009). Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. t. 155. ISBN 978-1-902210-43-8.
  111. Holberg, Dale, gol. (2000). "Festival calendar of India". Students' Britannica India. 2. Encyclopædia Britannica (India). t. 120. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5. Raksha Bandhan (also called Rakhi), when girls and women tie a rakhi (a symbolic thread) on their brothers' wrists and pray for their prosperity, happiness and goodwill. The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection.
  112. Frazier, Jessica (2015). The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies. Bloomsbury Academic. tt. 255, 271–273. ISBN 978-1-4725-1151-5.
  113. Fuller 2004.
  114. Lochtefeld 2002n.
  115. 115.0 115.1 Jacobsen 2013.
  116. Bhardwaj 1983, t. 2.
  117. Sharma, Krishan; Sinha, Anil Kishore; Banerjee, Bijon Gopal (2009). Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage. Northern Book Centre. tt. 3–5. ISBN 978-81-89091-09-5.
  118. Maw, Geoffrey Waring (1997). Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas. Sessions Book Trust. t. 7. ISBN 978-1-85072-190-1. Cyrchwyd 5 Gorffennaf 2017.

Dolennau allanol

Main resources
Hindu views
Ymchwil


Gwall cyfeirio: Mae tagiau <ref> yn bodoli am grŵp o'r enw "note", ond ni ellir canfod y tag <references group="note"/>
Gwall cyfeirio: Mae tagiau <ref> yn bodoli am grŵp o'r enw "lower-alpha", ond ni ellir canfod y tag <references group="lower-alpha"/>
Gwall cyfeirio: Mae tagiau <ref> yn bodoli am grŵp o'r enw "web", ond ni ellir canfod y tag <references group="web"/>